Question 1

Project management constraint awareness in HDL work A critical project-management dimension is schedule: the time allowed by management to complete the HDL design, verification, and integration activities.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Time is a central constraint in engineering projects. HDL efforts must balance feature set, performance, verification depth, and resource availability within a deadline. Recognizing schedule as a hard constraint drives scope control, risk mitigation, and staged delivery plans. Given Data / Assumptions: A fixed or bounded delivery date is imposed. Resources (people, tools, licenses, lab time) are finite. Features and quality targets must be aligned with the available time. Concept / Approach: Classic project management triangles emphasize time, cost, and scope/quality. In HDL work, schedule awareness leads to milestones (I/O freeze, RTL freeze, verification closure), buffer for integration risks, and prioritization of must-have features. Without explicit schedule control, late integration bugs and scope creep can derail delivery. Step-by-Step Solution: Define milestones and measurable exit criteria (e.g., coverage goals, timing closure).Map critical paths: long-lead IPs, board availability, timing closure risks.Stage deliverables and plan parallelization (design vs. verification).Monitor progress and adjust scope to protect the deadline. Verification / Alternative check: Conduct periodic schedule risk reviews; if verification lag is detected, reevaluate features or add resources before the window closes. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Incorrect” dismisses a foundational management reality. “Only budget matters” overlooks that time itself is costly. “Schedule is irrelevant with IP cores” is false—IP integration, licensing, and verification still consume time. Common Pitfalls: Overcommitting features; underestimating verification and timing closure; ignoring lab bottlenecks for bring-up. Final Answer: Correct

Question 2

Keypad HDL encoder freeze logic In a scanned keypad HDL encoder, NAND-combining the column sense lines can be used to generate a “freeze” signal that latches a detected keypress.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Matrix keypads are commonly scanned by driving rows and reading columns (or vice versa). When no keys are pressed, pull-ups typically keep all column inputs HIGH. Pressing a key pulls the corresponding column LOW during the active row drive. Designers often need a simple combinational indicator that “some key is active now” to latch (freeze) the code and stop further scanning glitches. Given Data / Assumptions: Columns idle HIGH via pull-ups; a pressed key forces the active column LOW. Freeze is asserted HIGH when any column detects a LOW (key event). We consider NAND of all column signals as a candidate for the freeze indicator. Concept / Approach: For active-low key detection, the AND of all columns is 1 only when every column is HIGH (no keys). If any column goes LOW, the AND drops to 0. Negating this with a NAND produces 1 whenever any LOW appears—exactly the desired “key present” signal to freeze the encoder or halt the ring counter. Step-by-Step Solution: Let C = C3 * C2 * C1 * C0 (logic AND of columns).If no key is pressed, C = 1; if any key drives a column LOW, C = 0.Freeze = NAND(columns) = NOT(C) so Freeze = 0 only when no key; Freeze = 1 when any key is active.Use Freeze to latch the keycode and pause scanning until release/debounce completes. Verification / Alternative check: A wired-AND (via pull-ups) with a single inverter yields the same logic; in HDL, a reduction-AND followed by NOT is equivalent to a multi-input NAND. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Incorrect” ignores the standard active-low detection technique. “True only with OR gates” is logically wrong for active-low sense lines. “Valid only if columns are active HIGH” reverses the assumed polarity and would require different logic. Common Pitfalls: Forgetting to debounce; not disabling scanning during freeze, causing ghosting; mismatched polarity between hardware and HDL. Final Answer: Correct

Question 3

Keypad HDL encoder signal naming In the keypad encoder design, a signal or bit array often named “ts” is used to control tri-state enables for shared bus or column/row drivers.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: In keypad scanners and other bus-shared designs, HDL commonly uses tri-state enables to allow one source at a time to drive a shared line (such as a row driver or a bidirectional port). A control vector like “ts” (tri-state) is a conventional name for the enable bits, where each bit turns a driver on or off. Given Data / Assumptions: Multiple lines share a common resource and must not drive simultaneously. HDL supports tri-state ports or, in FPGA flows, infers multiplexers for internal busses and uses tri-state only at I/O pins. “ts” is treated as an enable mask: ts[i] = 1 enables driver i. Concept / Approach: During scanning, exactly one row driver is enabled while others are set to high-impedance (Z). The “ts” array represents these enables. Even if the synthesis tool replaces internal tri-states with multiplexing, the naming and intent remain: control which source is actively driving and which are Z. Step-by-Step Solution: Define a vector ts[N-1:0] for N drivers.Assign ts[k] = 1 for the selected row/driver; clear others to 0 (Z state).Map ts bits to output buffer enables or to mux selects, depending on technology.Verify in simulation that only one active driver exists at a time. Verification / Alternative check: Waveforms should show only the selected line actively driven; others stay at Z or are not selected in the multiplexer model. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Incorrect” conflicts with common naming conventions and usage. “Represents test sequence only” misinterprets the abbreviation. “Only used for analog multiplexers” is unrelated to digital tri-state control. Common Pitfalls: Driving multiple lines simultaneously; forgetting that many FPGAs disallow internal Z—requiring mux logic internally and Z only at pins. Final Answer: Correct

Question 4

Building a MOD-60 BCD counter for a digital clock In the clock project, a MOD-60 BCD counter can be implemented by cascading a MOD-10 (ones) counter into a MOD-6 (tens) BCD counter.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Human-readable timekeeping typically uses BCD for seconds and minutes. To count from 00 to 59, we combine a ones digit that cycles 0…9 (MOD-10) with a tens digit that cycles 0…5 (MOD-6). Proper cascading ensures that when the ones digit rolls over from 9 to 0, the tens digit increments, together forming a MOD-60 count. Given Data / Assumptions: Ones digit: BCD 0–9 (MOD-10). Tens digit: BCD 0–5 (MOD-6 constrained to valid BCD states). Carry/terminal count from ones drives the increment of tens. Concept / Approach: In synchronous designs, the ones counter provides a ripple-carry-out (RCO) or terminal count signal when it transitions from 9 to 0. This signal synchronously enables an increment in the tens counter. The tens counter resets from 5 to 0 when it receives the next carry, completing a 60-state sequence (00–59) before rolling over. Step-by-Step Solution: Instantiate BCD_MOD10 for ones; output = Q0..Q3.Instantiate BCD_MOD6 for tens; output = Q4..Q7 (BCD-encoded).Connect ones.RCO to tens.EN (or count-enable) so tens increments on ones rollover.Reset tens at 6 (i.e., after 5) to return to 0, producing 00..59. Verification / Alternative check: Simulate for at least 70 cycles and observe sequence 00..59..00. Confirm illegal BCD states do not occur in tens digit. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Incorrect” contradicts standard digital clock construction. “Valid only if tens is MOD-5” is wrong—the tens must count 0..5 (six states). “Requires Gray code” is unnecessary for BCD display counting. Common Pitfalls: Forgetting to constrain tens to 0..5; not gating the enable correctly; asynchronous ripple causing glitches instead of clean synchronous carry. Final Answer: Correct

Question 5

Keypad scanner enable behavior In the keypad HDL encoder, if all column inputs remain HIGH (no key pressed), the ring counter remains enabled and continues scanning.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Ring counters are often used to sequentially activate rows in a matrix keypad. With pull-ups on columns, a released keypad presents all HIGHs. The scanner should continue cycling through rows until a keypress pulls a column LOW, at which point detection logic can freeze the scan and latch the code. Given Data / Assumptions: Columns idle HIGH; a pressed key causes an active LOW on the corresponding column during its row’s activation. The ring counter controls which row is driven at any moment. Enable for the ring counter is deasserted only when a keypress is detected. Concept / Approach: The enable logic is typically derived from the combined column status. When all columns are HIGH, the “no key” condition holds and the ring counter continues running. If any column goes LOW (key event), a freeze or hold condition disables the ring, preventing the scan from skipping over the pressed key while the system latches and debounces. Step-by-Step Solution: Drive rows in sequence using a ring counter (one-hot).Sense columns through pull-ups; sample during each row activation.Compute no_key = AND(columns) and enable = no_key.When no_key = 1 (all HIGH), keep scanning; when any LOW, disable scanning to process the key. Verification / Alternative check: Simulate a long period without keypresses and observe continuous row stepping. Introduce a keypress and confirm the ring halts and the keycode is stable until release. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Incorrect” contradicts typical scanner design. “True only with pull-down resistors” reverses polarity; the principle still holds with consistent logic. “Only in asynchronous ring counters” is irrelevant; synchronous rings behave similarly. Common Pitfalls: Failing to debounce; forgetting to re-enable the ring after key release; sampling columns outside the valid window for the driven row. Final Answer: Correct

Question 6

Using ENT and RCO for synchronous counter cascading In the digital clock project, the ENT (enable-T) input and RCO (ripple carry out) output are used to cascade synchronous BCD counters cleanly.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Many standard BCD counters (e.g., 74xx160/2/3/4 families or FPGA IP) provide standardized control pins for cascading. ENT (or similar count-enable) allows the counter to increment only under certain conditions, while RCO asserts when the counter reaches its terminal count and rolls over. Together, they build multi-digit counters without glitches. Given Data / Assumptions: Each stage is synchronous, sharing a common clock. Lower digit provides a carry-like indicator (RCO) when it completes its cycle. Upper digit increments only when ENT is asserted (often gated by the lower stage’s RCO). Concept / Approach: On each active clock edge, the ones digit counts freely while ENT is HIGH. When it rolls from 9 to 0, RCO pulses HIGH, enabling the tens digit’s ENT for exactly one clock, thus incrementing the tens digit by one. This is synchronous cascading—every flip-flop is clocked together, avoiding the skew and ripple delays of asynchronous chaining. Step-by-Step Solution: Connect common CLK to all counter stages.Route ones.RCO to tens.ENT (possibly ORed with other enables such as global run).Constrain the tens counter to MOD-6 for minutes/seconds tens digit.Verify that the tens digit advances exactly when ones digit rolls over. Verification / Alternative check: Simulate several minutes of counting; confirm that transitions happen only at rollovers and that there are no intermediate illegal BCD states. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Incorrect” ignores how standard counter cascading works. “Valid only in asynchronous ripple counters” reverses the concept—RCO/ENT are specifically helpful for synchronous operation. “Works only if ENT is active LOW” is a polarity confusion; the method works with either polarity as long as logic is consistent. Common Pitfalls: Forgetting to gate ENT properly, causing double counts; mixing asynchronous ripple with synchronous stages; failing to reset digits at their terminal counts. Final Answer: Correct

Question 7

HDL digital clock design: At 11:59:59, the detection logic (for example, an AND gate that monitors the tens-of-hours = 1 along with other roll-over conditions) and the edge-triggered clock together advance the display to 12:00:00. Evaluate this impl…

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Digital clock projects in HDL (Hardware Description Language) commonly implement hour, minute, and second counters with well-defined roll-over conditions. The transition from 11:59:59 to 12:00:00 in a 12-hour clock requires special detection logic so that hours advance from 11 to 12, not to 00, preserving familiar timekeeping conventions. Given Data / Assumptions: Format: 12-hour display with hours = 01…12. At 11:59:59, the counters for seconds and minutes are at 59, and the hour is 11 (tens-of-hours = 1 and ones-of-hours = 1). Edge-triggered clocking updates the registers synchronously on the active clock edge. Concept / Approach: In HDL, roll-over is handled by decoding a terminal count and issuing a synchronous load or increment. An AND gate (or equivalent Boolean term) often watches a combination of states: seconds = 59, minutes = 59, hours = 11. When that condition is true at the next clock edge, the control logic forces seconds and minutes to 00 and loads hours with 12 rather than incrementing to 00. Step-by-Step Solution: Detect terminal count: (sec == 59) * (min == 59) * (hours == 11).Include sub-decodes: tens_of_hours == 1 and ones_of_hours == 1.On the edge-triggered clock, execute: sec := 00; min := 00; hours := 12.Else, operate normally: seconds increment; cascade to minutes and hours on overflow. Verification / Alternative check: Simulate a timing wave: advance time through 11:59:58 → 11:59:59 → 12:00:00. Confirm synchronous loads occur only on the clock edge when the AND condition is true. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Incorrect” ignores the standard 12-hour roll-over logic. “Only for 24-hour clocks” is inverted; 24-hour uses 23→00. The conditions do not require “minutes tens = 0.” “Asynchronous clocks” are not required; synchronous, edge-triggered design is the norm. Common Pitfalls: Forgetting to load 12 after 11, accidentally rolling to 00, or mixing asynchronous resets with synchronous loads causing glitches. Final Answer: Correct

Question 8

Keypad encoder in HDL scanning: After a key is released, the ring counter resumes its normal scanning sequence to poll rows/columns for the next keypress. Judge this behavior.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Matrix keypads are commonly scanned by cycling drive lines via a ring counter while sampling sense lines. When a key is pressed, the scan halts long enough to capture and debounce the key code. Once the key is released, the system must resume scanning to detect subsequent keypresses. Given Data / Assumptions: The keypad is arranged in rows and columns with pull-ups or pull-downs as appropriate. A ring counter steps through drive lines to excite one row/column at a time. HDL logic freezes or latches when a valid key is detected, then requires release to continue scanning. Concept / Approach: The scanning process is an FSM (finite state machine) with states such as IDLE, SCAN, DETECT, DEBOUNCE, LATCH, and RELEASE. A ring counter provides a one-hot drive pattern. On press, the encoder captures the key code; on release (no active row/column short), the FSM returns to SCAN, and the ring counter resumes sequencing. Step-by-Step Solution: Ring counter advances continuously in SCAN.Keypress detected → FSM halts advance and debounces.Key code is encoded and presented to output logic.On release signal (no closure), FSM re-enters SCAN → ring counter resumes stepping. Verification / Alternative check: Waveform simulation shows one-hot ring counter progression stopping during a valid press and resuming after the release event clears. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Matrix size does not fundamentally change the resume behavior. Asynchronous clocks are not required; synchronous designs work well. Pull-up values affect signal integrity but not the state-machine rule to resume. Common Pitfalls: Failing to implement a “key release” detection, causing lockup; inadequate debounce that resumes scanning too early or too late. Final Answer: Correct

Question 9

Frequency counter front end: A pulse-shaping (conditioning) block is required so that an unknown input waveform is compatible with the counter's clock input specifications (logic levels, edge cleanliness). Evaluate this design requirement.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Frequency counters measure how many cycles of an input signal occur within a precise gate time. The input waveform may be noisy, analog, or outside logic thresholds. A pulse shaper or input conditioner (e.g., comparator with hysteresis, Schmitt trigger) cleans the waveform into crisp logic-level edges that the digital counter can reliably clock on. Given Data / Assumptions: Unknown signal amplitude/shape and possible noise. Digital counter block requires specific V_IL/V_IH and adequate edge slew rate. We desire consistent triggering on one edge per cycle. Concept / Approach: The pulse shaper performs level translation and squaring. It ensures the clock input sees monotonic, sufficiently fast transitions and meets logic thresholds. Hysteresis (Schmitt action) reduces spurious triggers from noise. If necessary, attenuation or amplification precedes the squaring stage to fit the device’s safe input range. Step-by-Step Solution: Sense unknown input → AC/DC couple as needed.Condition via comparator/Schmitt trigger to create rail-to-rail logic pulses.Feed clean pulses into the counter’s clock pin.Calibrate trigger level and hysteresis to avoid multiple counts. Verification / Alternative check: Oscilloscope comparison: raw input vs. shaped output shows reduced jitter, sharper edges, and stable logic levels; counter readings become repeatable. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Need is not limited by 1 MHz; even low-frequency noisy signals need shaping. Sine waves also require thresholding; square waves can still need conditioning if amplitude or slew is inadequate. Synchronous architecture alone doesn’t solve analog interfacing needs. Common Pitfalls: Feeding analog signals directly into logic inputs; ignoring input protection; missing hysteresis causing double counts. Final Answer: Correct

Question 10

Principle of a digital frequency counter: Frequency is measured by enabling a counter for a precisely known sampling (gate) time and counting how many input pulses occur during that interval.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Digital frequency counters fundamentally convert an analog phenomenon (a repeating waveform) into a digital count by time-gating pulses. By knowing the gate time exactly, the count maps directly to frequency, enabling accurate and stable measurement across a wide range. Given Data / Assumptions: Input is periodic with countable edges. A precise reference timebase defines the sampling (gate) interval. A digital counter tallies edges within the gate time. Concept / Approach: If N pulses are counted during gate time T, then the displayed frequency is f ≈ N / T. Longer T improves resolution (more counts per measurement); shorter T improves update rate. Reciprocal techniques can measure period instead, but the stated approach is the classic method used in many counters. Step-by-Step Solution: Stabilize a reference clock → derive precise gate time T.Pulse-shape the input to valid logic levels.Enable the counter for interval T; count rising (or falling) edges → N.Compute/display frequency: f = N / T. Verification / Alternative check: Cross-check by measuring period with a time-interval counter: period P → frequency f = 1 / P. Both methods converge when the reference is accurate and jitter is controlled. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Incorrect” contradicts the established method. 50% duty cycle is unnecessary; only stable edges are needed. Dual counters help with continuous display but are not required. Reciprocal counters are an alternative method, not a refutation. Common Pitfalls: Too short a gate time yields poor resolution; noisy inputs cause double counts; improper trigger level causes missed edges. Final Answer: Correct

Question 11

Stepper motor drive modes: In a full-step sequence, two coils (phases) are typically energized simultaneously; however, claiming this “always” causes 30° per step is inaccurate for common motors. Assess the statement.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Full-step and half-step modes are standard in stepper control. In full-step, many drivers energize two phases simultaneously to maximize torque. The actual mechanical step angle, however, depends on motor construction and pole count, not merely on the drive mode. Given Data / Assumptions: Statement asserts two points: (1) two coils energized in full-step and (2) “typically” 30° per step. Common stepper types: 1.8° (200 steps/rev), 0.9°, 7.5°, and others. Electrical sequence can be one-phase-on or two-phase-on; both are considered full-step styles. Concept / Approach: While two-phase-on full-step is common, the word “always” is too strong because single-phase-on full-step also exists. More importantly, the claim about 30° per step is not representative of typical steppers used in instrumentation and robotics. A 30° step implies only 12 steps per revolution, which is atypically coarse; mainstream steppers use much finer resolution like 1.8° per step. Step-by-Step Solution: Evaluate coil energization → often, but not always, two coils are on in full-step.Evaluate step angle → determined by motor design; common values are far below 30°.Therefore the compound statement is not generally true. Verification / Alternative check: Vendor datasheets (NEMA 17/23) list 1.8° or 0.9° step angles; historical PM steppers list 7.5°; 30° is a special case, not “typical.” Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Correct” overgeneralizes. “Correct only for 12-step motors” narrows it but the prompt claims typical, which is inaccurate. Drive topology (unipolar/bipolar) doesn’t fix a 30° angle. Supply voltage doesn’t set step angle. Common Pitfalls: Confusing drive mode with mechanical resolution; assuming any motor’s step angle from the sequence alone. Final Answer: Incorrect

Question 12

HDL digital clock integration flow: In an Altera/Intel-style project, AHDL block codes (text) can be instantiated and interconnected using graphic design files (block-diagram entry). Evaluate this integration statement.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: FPGA/CPLD design flows often allow mixing text-based HDL modules with graphical block diagrams. In the historical MAX+PLUS II / Quartus flows, AHDL or VHDL entities can be placed as symbols within a Graphic Design File (GDF) for top-level integration. Given Data / Assumptions: AHDL blocks compiled into entities with defined ports. Graphic editor that can instantiate symbols representing HDL entities. Signals are wired graphically between instances to form the top level. Concept / Approach: This mixed-entry methodology facilitates rapid system integration: HDL provides behavior, and the graphic file serves as a visual netlist. The tool auto-generates symbol files from compiled HDL entities, enabling consistent port mapping and hierarchical design practices. Step-by-Step Solution: Write/compile AHDL entities → tool produces symbols.Open graphic design file → place symbols of AHDL blocks.Wire interconnects (clocks, enables, buses, resets) between symbols.Compile/system-fit the combined design and generate programming files. Verification / Alternative check: Project trees show mixed sources; successful compilation and correct pin assignments confirm proper symbol interconnection and net resolution. Why Other Options Are Wrong: It is not limited to VHDL; AHDL also supports symbol instantiation. Schematic netlists are optional, not mandatory. The approach works for both CPLDs and FPGAs. Common Pitfalls: Not re-generating symbols after port changes; mismatched bus widths; forgetting to assign pins at the top level. Final Answer: Correct

Question 13

HDL project methodology: One of the earliest steps is defining scope by identifying all external and internal signals, their directions, and their timing/logic characteristics before detailed coding begins. Assess this guidance.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Successful HDL development requires clear up-front planning. Enumerating signals, their directions, widths, clock domains, and timing constraints prevents rework, integration issues, and ambiguous interfaces later in the project. Given Data / Assumptions: The project has multiple functional blocks. External I/O and internal busses must be defined. Clock, reset strategy, and handshake protocols must be understood early. Concept / Approach: Defining scope means capturing a block diagram, interface tables, and timing requirements. This includes identifying clock rates, active levels for resets, valid windows for data, and throughput/latency requirements. With this information, module boundaries and testbench stimuli align with real needs. Step-by-Step Solution: List external interfaces (pins, protocols) with directions and widths.Specify clock domains, reset polarities, and synchronization needs.Define performance targets: frequency, throughput, latency.Capture constraints in the tool (timing, I/O standards) before coding. Verification / Alternative check: Projects with early interface definitions compile and integrate more smoothly; design reviews and simulation test plans are easier when signals are documented. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Planning is not only for large devices; even small CPLD designs benefit. Testbenches rely on specifications; they are not prerequisites for defining signals. Calling it “not part of planning” contradicts established engineering practice. Common Pitfalls: Skipping interface documentation; mixing active-HIGH/LOW conventions; omitting timing budgets leading to violations later. Final Answer: Correct

Question 14

Keypad HDL encoder data path: The output data bus represents a 4-bit code for the pressed key, formed by combining the row and column information produced by the scanning encoder. Evaluate this description.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Matrix keypads interface naturally to digital logic by scanning rows and columns. The intersection of an active row and a detected column is mapped to a key code. Many designs present this as a 4-bit output suitable for numeric or hexadecimal keypads. Given Data / Assumptions: A ring counter or sequencer asserts one row/column at a time. Sense lines read back the column/row that closed via the pressed key. An encoder maps the row/column pair into a single 4-bit code. Concept / Approach: The encoder performs combinational mapping: for a given row_i and col_j detection, it outputs a constant 4-bit value representing key i,j. Debounce logic ensures stable capture; a data-ready or valid signal can flag that the 4-bit code is meaningful. Step-by-Step Solution: Scan rows/columns via sequencer.Detect active intersection when a key shorts a row to a column.Feed row/column lines to a priority encoder or LUT that outputs a 4-bit code.Latch code and assert data-valid; release on key-up and resume scanning. Verification / Alternative check: Simulation shows deterministic mapping from (row,col) to the 4-bit code; hardware testing confirms correct values on the data bus for each key. Why Other Options Are Wrong: It is not limited to hexadecimal layouts; any 4-bit mapping is possible. Analog multiplexers are unnecessary for pure digital scanning. Gray code is optional; most keypads use straightforward binary/BCD coding. Common Pitfalls: Ghosting without diodes in multi-key press scenarios; inadequate debounce; mismatched row/column mapping tables. Final Answer: Correct

Question 15

VHDL stepper motor driver: Declaring coil drive outputs (cout) as bit_vector is appropriate because the coil energizing pattern is a binary bit pattern applied to multiple output pins. Assess this typing choice.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: In VHDL, multi-bit outputs that represent parallel control lines are naturally modeled as vectors. Stepper drivers generate patterns such as 1001, 1100, 0110, 0011 for full-step or half-step sequences, which map cleanly to vector types. Given Data / Assumptions: Outputs drive multiple coils or H-bridge inputs simultaneously. Patterns are binary and time-sequenced by an FSM or counter. Port typing must support indexing and assignment of bit fields. Concept / Approach: Choosing bit_vector (or more commonly std_logic_vector) groups related single-bit lines into one bus. This simplifies table-based pattern generation and allows array indexing and slices. Since the values are not arithmetic, unsigned/signed numerical types are unnecessary. Step-by-Step Solution: Define port cout : out bit_vector(3 downto 0) for four coil lines.Store patterns in a constant array or case statement.Advance an index on each step to output the next pattern.Drive the physical pins from cout bits. Verification / Alternative check: Simulation shows cout cycling through the intended patterns; hardware traces confirm correct phase energizing and rotation direction. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Incorrect” ignores common VHDL practice. std_logic_vector is a robust alternative, but that does not invalidate bit_vector. The approach is independent of motor topology (unipolar/bipolar). Signed arithmetic is unnecessary. Common Pitfalls: Mixing bit_vector and std_logic_vector without proper conversions; forgetting to constrain vector ranges consistently (downto vs to). Final Answer: Correct

Question 16

HDL strategic planning: Early in the design process, establishing speed (clock rate) and performance requirements is a key strategy that drives architecture, pipelining, and timing constraints. Evaluate this practice.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Digital hardware performance depends on achievable clock frequency, latency, and throughput. Defining speed targets early influences microarchitecture decisions such as pipelining depth, resource sharing, and clock-domain planning. Given Data / Assumptions: Project must meet timing for a specified f_max. Devices have finite routing and logic delays. Tool constraints and floorplanning benefit from known targets. Concept / Approach: By setting speed requirements, designers select architectures that can meet the critical-path budget. This includes breaking long combinational paths with registers, choosing appropriate IP cores, and applying multi-cycle paths or clock enables where applicable. Timing constraints (SDC/SDC-like) should reflect these decisions from the outset. Step-by-Step Solution: Define target clock(s) and throughput/latency goals.Partition logic to control critical-path length.Apply timing constraints and synthesize early to verify feasibility.Iterate architecture or constraints until timing closes. Verification / Alternative check: Timing reports (setup/hold) after synthesis/place-route confirm whether the design meets f_max. Adjust pipeline stages or resource mapping if violations occur. Why Other Options Are Wrong: It is necessary for FPGAs and ASICs alike. Waiting until after coding often forces expensive redesign. Performance planning impacts both simulation and synthesis because timing affects functionality under real clocks. Common Pitfalls: Underestimating routing delay; insufficient register stages; mismatched constraints leading to false pass/fail timing. Final Answer: Correct

Question 17

Digital clock HDL design clarification: Is frequency prescaling used to convert a 1 pulse-per-second (1 pps) input into a 60 pulses-per-second (60 pps) timing signal for the clock?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Digital clocks in hardware description languages (HDLs) often use frequency division to derive human-time signals from a faster reference. This question tests your understanding of “frequency prescaling” and whether it is used to convert a slow 1 pps source into a faster 60 pps signal. Given Data / Assumptions: A 1 pps signal provides one pulse each second. A 60 pps signal provides sixty pulses each second. “Frequency prescaling” and “frequency division” traditionally reduce frequency (divide), not multiply. Clock projects typically derive 1 pps by dividing a higher-frequency reference (for example, 60 Hz or a crystal oscillator). Concept / Approach: A prescaler divides the input frequency: fout = fin / N. To go from 60 pps to 1 pps, choose N = 60. To go from 1 pps to 60 pps would require frequency multiplication or a different, faster source; division cannot increase frequency. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the goal: obtain 60 pps from 1 pps.Recall prescaler behavior: fout = fin / N, where N ≥ 1.If fin = 1 pps, division can create 1/N pps ≤ 1 pps, never 60 pps.Therefore, the statement that prescaling turns 1 pps into 60 pps is not valid. Verification / Alternative check: Common digital clock designs divide 60 Hz mains or a high-frequency crystal down to 1 Hz (1 pps), not the other way around. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Correct: Would imply prescaling increases frequency; it does not.Applies only for mains-driven clocks: Source type does not change the divide-only nature of prescaling.Valid only for BCD clocks: Code format (BCD) is unrelated to frequency multiplication. Common Pitfalls: Confusing dividers (prescalers) with phase-locked loops or numerically controlled oscillators that can multiply.Assuming any “timing block” can arbitrarily change frequency up or down. Final Answer: Incorrect

Question 18

Stepper motor control context: In “direct drive” mode, does the operator (or controller) have less control over the stepper motor’s motion profile and coil sequencing?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Stepper motors can be controlled via full-featured drivers or by “direct drive,” where the controller energizes coils directly. Understanding who determines the sequencing—driver or operator/controller—clarifies whether control increases or decreases. Given Data / Assumptions: Direct drive means the HDL or microcontroller toggles phase lines/enable lines itself. With direct drive, the controller defines timing, direction, step mode (wave, full, half), and acceleration profile. Dedicated driver ICs abstract some of these details but also impose internal modes. Concept / Approach: In direct drive, the designer explicitly manages coil energization order and dwell time. That is more—not less—control, albeit with greater responsibility for correct timing and current limits. “Less control” would typically occur when using a black-box driver that hides details behind step/direction inputs and internal microstepping logic. Step-by-Step Solution: Define “direct drive”: controller sequences coils directly.Assess control: explicit coil control yields finer control of behavior.Conclude: The statement “allows for less control” is not accurate. Verification / Alternative check: Practical implementations show direct drive enables custom waveforms, atypical step tables, and tailored acceleration/jerk profiles. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Correct: Would imply direct drive reduces control; it does not.Applies only to unipolar motors / Valid only with microstepping drivers: Motor topology or driver style does not reverse the core control trade-off. Common Pitfalls: Confusing “more work for the designer” with “less control.”Overlooking current limiting requirements when bypassing smart drivers. Final Answer: Incorrect

Question 19

Keypad HDL encoder behavior: Does the “freeze bit” primarily detect when a key is released, or is it intended to latch the code upon a key press to stabilize the output?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: In keypad encoders, a “freeze” or “latch” mechanism is frequently used to stabilize the reported key code and to avoid flicker during scanning and debounce intervals. This question distinguishes between release detection and press-latch behavior. Given Data / Assumptions: Matrix keypads are scanned by activating rows/columns and reading the opposite lines. Mechanical switches bounce, creating brief, spurious transitions. A “freeze bit” conventionally captures the first valid key press and holds the code. Concept / Approach: The freeze function is designed to latch the keypad output when a valid press is detected, often until the system acknowledges it or until no key is detected for a defined interval. It is not primarily a release detector; release is usually inferred when scanning no longer detects a closed contact and the freeze is cleared or a new event is permitted. Step-by-Step Solution: Scan rows/columns to detect a pressed key.On a valid press, set the freeze bit and latch the BCD/encoded value.Hold the value stable during bouncing or while the key remains pressed.Upon release or acknowledge, clear freeze to accept the next key press. Verification / Alternative check: HDL implementations typically gate further updates while freeze=1, confirming press-latch semantics. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Correct — it detects release events: Misstates the primary role; release is secondary.Only valid for matrix keypads with diodes: Freeze is logical; diodes prevent ghosting but are unrelated to latch semantics.Applies solely to mechanical key bounce: Freeze also aids in display stability and user interface logic. Common Pitfalls: Treating freeze as a debounce-only flag instead of a code latch.Failing to clear freeze properly, which blocks subsequent key events. Final Answer: Incorrect — it latches on press, not on release

Question 20

Stepper motor sequencing fundamentals: Is the half-step sequence formed by inserting intermediate single-coil-on states between the normal full-step (two-coil-on) positions?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Stepper motors can be driven in wave drive (one phase on), full-step (two phases on), or half-step modes. Half-stepping improves angular resolution and reduces resonance by interleaving states from wave and full-step sequences. Given Data / Assumptions: Full-step commonly uses two phases energized for higher torque. Wave drive energizes a single phase at a time. Half-step alternates between these two patterns, doubling position resolution. Concept / Approach: The half-step table is formed by taking the full-step sequence and inserting single-coil (wave) states between each pair of adjacent full-step states. This yields eight distinct positions per electrical cycle for a 4-phase motor instead of four, effectively halving the step angle. Step-by-Step Solution: Start with full-step sequence: AB, BC, CD, DA (two coils energized at each step).Insert wave states between them: A, B, C, D (single coil energized).Final half-step sequence: A → AB → B → BC → C → CD → D → DA → repeat.This inserts one-coil states between the two-coil states, creating half-steps. Verification / Alternative check: Drive tables in motor datasheets and application notes show the mixed one/two-phase pattern for half-stepping. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Incorrect: Ignores the standard half-step composition.Only true for bipolar motors / Valid only with microstepping drivers: Half-stepping applies to unipolar and bipolar; microstepping is finer, analog current control. Common Pitfalls: Forgetting that torque dips during the single-coil states; some drivers boost current to compensate.Mixing up half-step with microstepping, which uses sinusoidal current control for many sub-steps. Final Answer: Correct

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