Question 1

In which of the following market forms does a firm have no control over the price of its product and must accept the prevailing market price?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Different market structures are characterised by different degrees of control over price. In some markets, firms are price takers and have virtually no power to influence the market price. In others, firms have varying degrees of market power and can set prices above marginal cost. This question asks you to identify the market form in which an individual firm does not exercise control over price and simply accepts the going market price. Given Data / Assumptions: - Four market forms are listed: monopoly, perfect competition, oligopoly and monopolistic competition. - The firm in question has no control over price. - We assume standard textbook definitions of these market structures. Concept / Approach: In perfect competition, there are many buyers and many sellers, products are homogeneous, there is free entry and exit, and each firm is so small relative to the market that it cannot influence the price. As a result, each firm is a price taker: it can sell any quantity at the prevailing market price but cannot charge a higher price. In monopoly, oligopoly and monopolistic competition, firms have some degree of market power and therefore some control over price, subject to demand conditions. Step-by-Step Solution: Step 1: Consider perfect competition. Here, because products are identical and there are many sellers, a single firm cannot affect the market price by its individual output decisions.Step 2: In a monopoly, there is only one seller, so that seller has substantial control over price, constrained mainly by the demand curve.Step 3: In an oligopoly, a few large firms dominate the market, and each has significant influence over price and output, often considering rivals’ reactions.Step 4: In monopolistic competition, many firms sell differentiated products, giving each firm some pricing power due to brand loyalty.Step 5: Therefore, the only market form where the firm truly has no control over price is perfect competition. Verification / Alternative check: You can verify by recalling the typical cost and revenue diagram for a perfectly competitive firm. The demand curve facing the firm is perfectly elastic at the market price, so the marginal revenue curve is horizontal. If the firm tries to charge more than the market price, it loses all its customers because they can buy the same product elsewhere. This confirms that the firm is a price taker. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Monopoly is wrong because the monopolist is a price maker. Oligopoly is wrong because a small number of firms collectively influence market prices. Monopolistic competition is wrong because product differentiation gives firms some latitude to set prices above marginal cost. Common Pitfalls: Students sometimes confuse perfect competition with monopolistic competition because both involve many firms. The key difference is that in perfect competition, products are homogeneous, whereas in monopolistic competition they are differentiated. Differentiation is what gives firms pricing power. Remembering this helps keep the concept of price taking clearly associated with perfect competition. Final Answer: A firm has no control over price in a Perfect competition market.

Question 2

The main economic effect of direct taxes such as income tax and wealth tax falls primarily on which of the following variables?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Direct taxes are taxes imposed directly on the income or wealth of individuals and companies, such as income tax and corporate tax. Understanding where the immediate burden of these taxes falls is important for analysing their impact on consumption, savings and investment. This question asks which economic variable is primarily affected by direct taxes. Given Data / Assumptions: - Direct taxes include income tax, corporate tax and wealth tax. - These taxes are collected from the person or organisation on whom they are legally imposed. - The options mention food prices, consumer goods, capital goods and income. Concept / Approach: The key feature of a direct tax is that it is levied on income or wealth at the point where it is earned or held. When a direct tax is collected, the taxpayer’s disposable income—that is, income after tax—is reduced. This reduction in disposable income can then influence demand for goods and services, savings and investment, but the primary and immediate effect is on income rather than on the price level of specific goods. Step-by-Step Solution: Step 1: Recognise that direct taxes are calculated on income or wealth figures. When you pay income tax, you are left with less net income to spend or save.Step 2: Examine option D, disposable income of individuals and entities. This directly captures the variable that is immediately affected by the imposition of direct taxes.Step 3: Consider option A, food prices. While changes in taxes can eventually affect demand and perhaps market prices, direct taxes are not primarily levied on goods, so food prices are not the direct focus.Step 4: Consider option B, consumer goods, and option C, capital goods. These refer to categories of goods that may experience changes in demand, but again, the initial impact of a direct tax is on the income of the taxpayer, not on these goods themselves. Verification / Alternative check: You can verify by looking at a simple pay slip. Gross salary is the total earnings. After deduction of income tax, the remaining amount is net pay or take home income, which is the disposable income available to the worker. Prices in the market do not change at the moment the tax is deducted; what changes is the person’s ability to purchase goods. This confirms that the main direct effect is on income. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Option A is wrong because food prices are more directly influenced by supply conditions, indirect taxes and distribution costs than by direct taxes on income. Option B and option C are wrong because, while demand for consumer and capital goods can be influenced indirectly by changes in income, they are not the primary variable on which the tax is imposed. The question asks about the main effect, which is on income. Common Pitfalls: Some students confuse direct and indirect taxes. Indirect taxes such as GST are levied on goods and services and can have an immediate impact on prices. Direct taxes, by contrast, alter the after tax income of individuals and firms. Keeping this distinction clear helps to avoid confusion in such questions. Final Answer: The main effect of direct taxes is on Disposable income of individuals and entities.

Question 3

In international trade, the term “dumping” refers to which of the following pricing practices adopted by a firm in a foreign market?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Dumping is a concept in international economics and trade policy that often appears in discussions about unfair trade practices and anti dumping duties. It involves selling goods in a foreign market at a very low price, sometimes below cost, in order to gain market share or drive out competitors. This question asks you to identify the pricing practice that best captures the idea of dumping. Given Data / Assumptions: - The focus is on sales in a foreign market, not domestic sales. - Options discuss substandard quality, prices below marginal cost, prices at marginal cost and smuggling without customs duty. - The question assumes a basic understanding of cost concepts such as marginal cost and of legal versus illegal trade. Concept / Approach: Economically, dumping is usually defined as selling a product in a foreign market at a price lower than its normal value, which may be the price in the home market or the cost of production. A particularly strong form of dumping is predatory dumping, where the exporting firm sells below cost, sometimes below marginal cost, to undercut competitors. The aim is often to capture market share and then raise prices later. Dumping is different from smuggling, which is an illegal act of avoiding customs duties, and it is not simply about low quality. Step-by-Step Solution: Step 1: Examine option B: selling in a foreign market at a price below marginal cost. This describes a situation where the firm is pricing aggressively below its immediate cost of producing an extra unit, which fits the classic idea of dumping at unfairly low prices.Step 2: Examine option A: sale of a substandard commodity. Quality may or may not be related to dumping; dumping is defined primarily by price, not by product quality.Step 3: Examine option C: sale at marginal cost with too much profit. Selling at marginal cost typically leads to zero economic profit on that unit, not excessive profit, so this statement is internally inconsistent and not a standard definition.Step 4: Examine option D: smuggling without paying customs duty. Smuggling is illegal and involves evading border controls and taxes, which is a different issue from selling at low prices within the legal trading system. Verification / Alternative check: You can verify by recalling that anti dumping investigations by trade authorities usually compare export prices with home market prices or costs of production. If exports are found to be significantly below these benchmarks, authorities may impose anti dumping duties. The key criterion is the low pricing relative to cost or normal value, not the quality of the product or whether customs duties are paid. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Option A is wrong because selling low quality goods is not, by itself, dumping; the price may still be in line with cost and quality. Option C is wrong because it misuses the term marginal cost and contradicts the idea of too much profit. Option D is wrong because smuggling is an illegal border crime, whereas dumping can occur through legal trade channels and is addressed by trade remedies, not criminal law. Common Pitfalls: Students sometimes confuse dumping with smuggling because both may be viewed negatively, but they are conceptually distinct. Another pitfall is to think that any cheap export is dumping. In reality, competitive advantages or economies of scale can allow low prices without any unfair practice. Dumping specifically involves pricing below normal value, often below cost, with the potential intent to injure foreign producers. Final Answer: Dumping refers to Selling a commodity in a foreign market at a price below its marginal cost of production or more broadly below its normal value.

Question 4

In industrial organisation theory, a bilateral monopoly situation arises in a market when there is which specific combination of buyers and sellers for a particular product?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Market structures are classified based on the number of buyers and sellers and the nature of competition. A bilateral monopoly is a specialised case that combines features of monopoly and monopsony. Understanding this concept helps in analysing bargaining outcomes and the determination of prices when both sides of the market are highly concentrated. This question asks you to select the combination of buyers and sellers that defines a bilateral monopoly. Given Data / Assumptions: - The term in focus is bilateral monopoly. - Options describe different numbers of buyers and sellers: two sellers, two buyers, one buyer and one seller, and two buyers and two sellers. - We assume textbook definitions of monopoly (one seller) and monopsony (one buyer). Concept / Approach: A monopoly is a market with a single seller and many buyers. A monopsony is a market with a single buyer and many sellers. A bilateral monopoly arises when there is a single seller facing a single buyer. Both sides have market power, so the price and quantity are determined through bargaining between the monopolist and the monopsonist. The prefix bilateral simply indicates that there is a single dominant participant on each side of the transaction. Step-by-Step Solution: Step 1: Recall the meanings of mono and bilateral. Mono refers to one and bilateral refers to two sides (buyer and seller).Step 2: Examine option C: exactly one buyer and exactly one seller. This directly matches the idea of a monopoly seller and a monopsony buyer interacting in the same market.Step 3: Examine option A: only two sellers and many buyers. This would be a duopoly on the seller side, not a bilateral monopoly.Step 4: Examine option B: only two buyers and many sellers. This would approximate a buyer side oligopsony, not a single buyer.Step 5: Examine option D: two buyers and two sellers. This describes a small oligopolistic market on both sides, not the specific one buyer, one seller structure of bilateral monopoly. Verification / Alternative check: A typical example used in textbooks is a single labour union (monopoly supplier of labour) bargaining with a single employer (monopsony demander of labour) in a company town. Another example might be a single mining company selling to a single large industrial user. In both cases there is one seller and one buyer, which matches option C. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Option A is wrong because two sellers imply no monopoly on the selling side. Option B is wrong because two buyers imply no pure monopsony. Option D is wrong because having two on each side breaks the mono condition and leads instead to bilateral oligopoly. Common Pitfalls: Some students see the word bilateral and assume it refers to two sellers or two buyers, misinterpreting bilateral as meaning “two firms.” It actually refers to two sides of the market. Another pitfall is to focus only on the seller side and forget that the buyer side can also be concentrated, which is the essence of monopsony and bilateral monopoly. Final Answer: A bilateral monopoly exists when there is Exactly one buyer and exactly one seller of a product.

Question 5

In the study of income distribution, a Lorenz curve is a graphical representation that shows which of the following aspects of an economy?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: The Lorenz curve is a widely used tool in economics to illustrate how income or wealth is distributed within a population. It is closely linked to the Gini coefficient, which provides a numerical measure of inequality. Many objective questions ask you to recall what exactly the Lorenz curve represents. This question focuses on identifying that key idea. Given Data / Assumptions: - The Lorenz curve is a diagram usually drawn with cumulative population share on the horizontal axis and cumulative income or wealth share on the vertical axis. - Several possible interpretations are offered: inflation, unemployment, income distribution and poverty. - We assume standard usage of the Lorenz curve in welfare economics and statistics. Concept / Approach: A Lorenz curve plots the cumulative percentage of total income (or wealth) received by cumulative percentages of the population, ranked from poorest to richest. The closer the curve is to the 45 degree line of perfect equality, the more equal the distribution; the more bowed out the curve is, the greater the inequality. It does not depict inflation, unemployment rates or poverty lines directly; those are different economic indicators. Step-by-Step Solution: Step 1: Identify the key feature of the Lorenz curve: it orders the population by income or wealth and then shows how total income is shared among them.Step 2: Examine option C: the distribution of income or wealth among the population. This matches the definition because the curve directly visualises what share of total income accrues to different segments of the population.Step 3: Examine option A: inflation. Inflation refers to the general rise in prices; it is tracked by price indices, not by Lorenz curves.Step 4: Examine option B: unemployment. Unemployment is measured by unemployment rates, labour force surveys and related statistics, not by Lorenz curves.Step 5: Examine option D: poverty. While Lorenz curves are related to inequality and poverty analysis, they do not directly show the number of people below the poverty line; they show the shape of the distribution. Verification / Alternative check: You can verify by recalling how policymakers use the Lorenz curve. By comparing Lorenz curves for different years or countries, they can visually assess whether inequality is rising or falling. The curve is often accompanied by the Gini coefficient, which is calculated as twice the area between the line of perfect equality and the Lorenz curve. None of this analysis deals directly with inflation or unemployment; it is about how income or wealth is shared. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Option A is wrong because inflation is about price levels, not distribution of income. Option B is wrong because unemployment concerns the number of people without jobs, which is described by different statistics. Option D is wrong because poverty is usually measured by counting people below a poverty line; although inequality and poverty are related, the Lorenz curve is not a poverty headcount diagram. Common Pitfalls: Students sometimes loosely associate the Lorenz curve with poverty because both relate to social issues. However, inequality and poverty are distinct concepts: high inequality can exist with low poverty and vice versa. Remembering that the Lorenz curve is specifically about distribution—who gets how much of total income—helps to keep the concept clear. Final Answer: The Lorenz curve shows The distribution of income or wealth among the population.

Question 6

In economics, capital goods refer to goods which are primarily used for which of the following purposes?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: In basic economics, goods are often classified into consumer goods and capital goods. This classification is important for understanding how resources are allocated between current consumption and future production. Capital goods are essential for expanding the productive capacity of an economy. This question asks what capital goods are used for, which is central to understanding investment and growth. Given Data / Assumptions: - The term under consideration is capital goods, that is, goods used in production. - Four possible descriptions are given: raising further capital, helping in production of goods, directly satisfying wants and having multiple uses. - We assume standard textbook definitions of consumer goods and capital goods. Concept / Approach: Capital goods are man made resources such as machinery, tools, factory buildings and equipment that are used to produce other goods and services. They do not directly satisfy human wants but help in creating goods that do. Consumer goods, by contrast, directly enter into the satisfaction of final consumer wants, such as food, clothing and entertainment. The key distinguishing feature of capital goods is their role in further production. Step-by-Step Solution: Step 1: Examine option B: helping in the further production of other goods and services. This precisely captures the role of capital goods.Step 2: Examine option A: serving as a direct source of raising further financial capital. Financial capital refers to funds and securities, not physical capital goods, so this description is misleading.Step 3: Examine option C: directly satisfying human wants. This is the definition of consumer goods, not capital goods.Step 4: Examine option D: finding multiple uses. While some capital goods may indeed have multiple uses, this is not the defining characteristic; many consumer goods also have multiple uses. Verification / Alternative check: You can verify by thinking of examples: a machine in a factory, a tractor on a farm, or a computer used for designing products are capital goods because they help produce other goods or services. A loaf of bread, a shirt or a mobile phone used for personal entertainment are consumer goods because they directly satisfy wants. This comparison makes it clear that the key property of capital goods is their role in production rather than direct consumption. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Option A is wrong because raising financial capital usually involves issuing shares or bonds, not using physical goods. Option C is wrong because it describes consumer goods. Option D is wrong because multiple uses is not an essential feature that distinguishes capital goods from other goods. Common Pitfalls: Students sometimes confuse capital goods with financial capital or capital gains. Capital gains refer to profits made when selling an asset at a higher price than it was bought, which is different from the economic concept of capital goods. Keeping the distinction between physical tools of production and financial assets clear helps avoid such confusion. Final Answer: Capital goods are goods that are used for Helping in the further production of other goods and services.

Question 7

In the Balance of Payments accounts of a country, the ________ account balance is defined as the sum of the balance on merchandise trade, trade in services and net transfers received from the rest of the world.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: The Balance of Payments (BoP) is a systematic record of all economic transactions between residents of a country and the rest of the world. It is divided into different accounts, of which the current account and the capital (and financial) account are the main ones. This question focuses on the definition of the current account balance in terms of exports and imports of goods and services and net transfers. Given Data / Assumptions: - The balance mentioned includes merchandise trade, services and net transfers. - Merchandise trade refers to exports and imports of goods. - Services include items like tourism, transportation, banking and information technology services. - Net transfers include remittances, gifts and grants that do not involve a quid pro quo. - The options name various types of accounts: current, savings, capital and asset. Concept / Approach: In standard international economics, the current account of the BoP records transactions in goods, services, income and current transfers. When simplified, it is often described as the sum of the merchandise trade balance (goods), the services balance and net current transfers. The capital account (often combined with financial account) records capital transfers and financial flows such as investments and loans. Savings and asset accounts are not separate BoP headings. Step-by-Step Solution: Step 1: Recall that the current account includes trade in goods, trade in services, primary income and current transfers.Step 2: Note that the question explicitly mentions merchandise trade, services and net transfers, which fits the simplified description of the current account.Step 3: Understand that the capital account in BoP terminology deals with capital transfers and acquisition or disposal of non produced, non financial assets, not the day to day trade in goods and services.Step 4: Recognise that savings account and asset account are not standard BoP categories; they appear more in personal finance contexts.Step 5: Conclude that the appropriate term for the described balance is the current account balance. Verification / Alternative check: A typical BoP table in macroeconomics textbooks lists the current account with entries for goods, services, income and transfers. The sum of these gives the current account balance. The capital and financial account then record inflows and outflows of capital. This structure confirms that the combination of goods, services and net transfers belongs to the current account. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Option B, savings account, is wrong because savings is a concept in domestic macroeconomics and personal finance, not a BoP heading. Option C, capital account, is wrong because it captures capital flows, not the trade and transfer flows described in the question. Option D, asset account, is not a standard BoP term and therefore does not apply. Common Pitfalls: Some students confuse the capital account in the BoP with the capital account in domestic national accounts. Others misinterpret the word account and assume that a savings type label must fit. Remember that in the external sector context, the key division is between current transactions (goods, services, income and transfers) and capital/financial transactions (investment, loans and reserve changes). Final Answer: The described balance is the Current Account balance of the Balance of Payments.

Question 8

In consumer demand theory, the relationship that shows how the consumer’s optimal choice of the quantity of a good varies as its price changes, holding other factors constant, is called the ________ function.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: In microeconomics, demand and supply functions describe how quantities demanded or supplied respond to changes in price and other variables. The consumer’s optimisation problem leads to a demand function that links the optimal quantity of a good to its price, income and the prices of other goods. This question asks you to identify the name of the function that specifically relates optimal quantity demanded to the price of a good. Given Data / Assumptions: - The consumer chooses an optimal quantity of a good based on preferences, income and prices. - The question focuses on how this optimal quantity changes when the price of the good changes. - Other factors such as income and prices of other goods are held constant for this relationship. - The options are price function, substitution function, supply function and demand function. Concept / Approach: The demand function expresses quantity demanded as a function of its own price and other determinants. When we isolate the relationship between quantity demanded and the good’s own price, holding other factors constant, we obtain the individual demand curve. This is the central concept underlying the law of demand. The supply function, by contrast, relates quantity supplied to price from the producer’s perspective. The term substitution function is not standard for this relationship, and a price function would more likely refer to price as a function of other variables. Step-by-Step Solution: Step 1: Recall that the consumer’s optimisation leads to a mapping from prices and income to optimal quantities of each good.Step 2: Recognise that when we focus on one good and vary its price, keeping other things equal, we obtain the demand curve for that good.Step 3: Identify that this mapping from price to optimal quantity is called the demand function for that good.Step 4: Note that the supply function would instead describe the producer’s choice of quantity supplied at different prices.Step 5: Conclude that the correct term for the relationship described in the question is the demand function. Verification / Alternative check: You can verify by recalling typical notation: Qd = f(P), where Qd is quantity demanded and P is price, is one way to represent the demand function. Graphically, this is shown as a downward sloping curve in the price quantity plane. Supply functions are usually written as Qs = g(P) and are upward sloping under normal conditions. These formal representations confirm that the consumer’s optimal quantity choice as a function of price is indeed the demand function. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Option A, price function, is wrong because it would normally refer to price as the dependent variable. Option B, substitution function, is not a standard term; the substitution effect is part of the explanation of how demand changes, but the overall relationship is still called the demand function. Option C, supply function, is wrong because it refers to the behaviour of producers, not consumers. Common Pitfalls: Students may sometimes confuse demand and supply because both are drawn in the same type of diagram. It is useful to remember that demand comes from the consumer side and is downward sloping, whereas supply comes from the producer side and is typically upward sloping. Keeping track of whether the question is about the consumer’s or the producer’s optimal choice will point you to the correct function name. Final Answer: The relationship described is called the Demand function.

Question 9

According to the standard definition of a normal good in microeconomics, the demand for such a good tends to decrease when there is a ________ in the consumer’s income, other things remaining the same.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Normal and inferior goods are classified based on how demand responds to changes in consumer income. For a normal good, demand moves in the same direction as income, whereas for an inferior good, demand moves in the opposite direction. This question tests your understanding of what happens to the demand for a normal good when the consumer’s income changes. Given Data / Assumptions: - The good in question is explicitly a normal good. - Other factors such as prices and tastes are assumed to remain constant (ceteris paribus). - The question asks when demand for the normal good decreases in relation to income changes. - Options mention increase, decrease, constant level and doubling of income. Concept / Approach: By definition, for a normal good, the income effect is positive: when income rises, quantity demanded increases; when income falls, quantity demanded decreases. This is because consumers generally buy more of goods they view as desirable when they have more purchasing power. Therefore, we are looking for the type of income change that would cause demand to fall, which must be a decrease in income. Step-by-Step Solution: Step 1: Recall the definition of a normal good: demand increases when income increases and decreases when income decreases.Step 2: Identify which option describes an income movement that should cause demand to decrease for a normal good.Step 3: Option B, decrease in income, clearly matches this: when income goes down, consumers cut back on normal goods.Step 4: Option A, increase in income, is associated with higher demand, not lower demand, for a normal good.Step 5: Option C, constant income, implies no change in demand due to income, and option D, doubling income, would also lead to higher demand, not lower, for a normal good. Verification / Alternative check: You can verify with a simple example: consider a normal good such as high quality clothing. When a person’s income rises, they are likely to buy more or better clothing. When their income falls due to job loss or salary cuts, they reduce such purchases. This pattern is consistent with the definition of a normal good and confirms that a decrease in income leads to a decrease in demand. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Option A is wrong because income increases lead to increased demand, not decreased demand, for normal goods. Option C is wrong because if income remains constant, there is no reason for demand to change due to income alone. Option D is wrong because doubling income is an extreme form of increase, which would again increase demand for normal goods. Common Pitfalls: Some students confuse normal goods with inferior goods, where demand moves inversely with income. For inferior goods, a rise in income can reduce demand, as consumers switch to higher quality alternatives. To avoid this confusion, remember that normal means moving in the normal or same direction as income, whereas inferior means moving in the opposite direction. Final Answer: For a normal good, demand decreases when there is a decrease in the consumer’s income.

Question 10

In short run cost analysis, from which side does the short run marginal cost curve cut the short run average cost curve at its minimum point?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: In microeconomics, the relationship between different short run cost curves is a very common examination topic. In particular, students are often asked to remember how the short run marginal cost (SRMC) curve interacts with the short run average cost (SRAC) curve at its minimum point. Understanding this intersection gives insight into how marginal decisions influence average outcomes in production and cost analysis for firms. Given Data / Assumptions: We are dealing with short run cost curves where at least one factor of production is fixed. The short run average cost curve is assumed to be U shaped because of initially falling and then rising average costs. The short run marginal cost curve is also assumed to be U shaped. We are asked about the point of intersection at the minimum of the short run average cost curve. Concept / Approach: The key idea is the general rule that whenever a marginal magnitude is less than an average magnitude, the average falls, and whenever the marginal is greater than the average, the average rises. The average reaches its minimum exactly when the marginal equals the average. Applied to cost curves, the short run marginal cost equals the short run average cost at the minimum point of the SRAC curve, and the SRMC curve cuts the SRAC curve from below at that point. Step-by-Step Solution: 1. Consider the falling part of the SRAC curve. Here the marginal cost is less than average cost, so each additional unit produced pulls the average down.2. As output increases, marginal cost eventually rises and meets average cost exactly at the minimum point of the SRAC curve.3. At that minimum point, SRMC equals SRAC and the marginal cost curve must cross the average cost curve.4. Because before the minimum SRMC is below SRAC and after the minimum SRMC is above SRAC, the SRMC curve comes from below and then moves above.5. Therefore, at the minimum of the SRAC curve, the SRMC curve cuts the SRAC curve from below. Verification / Alternative check: A useful analogy is average marks and marks in the next exam. If the next mark (marginal mark) is less than the current average, the average falls. If the next mark is higher, the average rises. The average is at its lowest turning point just when the next mark equals the average and is rising from a lower value. This mirrors the behaviour of SRMC and SRAC and confirms that SRMC must cross SRAC from below at the minimum point. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Option A: Cutting from the top would imply that marginal cost is above average cost before the minimum, which contradicts the rule that the average falls when marginal is below the average. Option C: Cutting from the right side is not a meaningful description in terms of economic geometry and does not reflect the standard diagram of cost curves. Option D: Cutting from the left side is again not how the relationship between marginal and average cost is described in theory. Option E: Saying that SRMC never cuts SRAC at the minimum point is incorrect because their equality at the minimum point is a core result of cost theory. Common Pitfalls: Many learners confuse short run average variable cost with average total cost, but the same logic applies to both. Another common mistake is to think that marginal cost cuts from above because they imagine the curve coming down from a high point, but the mathematical rule about averages ensures that the marginal cost curve must cross from below at the minimum of the average cost curve. Remember to connect the geometric diagram with the average and marginal rule to avoid this confusion. Final Answer: The short run marginal cost curve cuts the short run average cost curve from below at the minimum point of the short run average cost curve.

Question 11

In resource geography, which type of resources are defined as those whose quantity is already known and measured?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Questions on classification of resources are very common in school level economics and geography. Examinations often test whether the learner can distinguish between actual resources, potential resources, natural resources, and other related terms. Here we focus on a specific definition: resources whose quantity is already known and measured. Understanding this classification helps students interpret economic and environmental statistics correctly. Given Data / Assumptions: We are dealing with classification of resources as used in basic economics and geography. We have four main options: natural, actual, potential, and abiotic resources, plus an extra distractor. The key phrase is that the quantity of the resource is known. Standard textbook definitions are assumed. Concept / Approach: Resources are broadly grouped as actual and potential according to their stage of development and use. Actual resources are those which are surveyed, quantified, and currently being used. Potential resources are those which exist and may be useful in future, but their exact quantity and feasibility of use are not yet fully measured or exploited. Natural resources is a broader term and includes both actual and potential resources that come from nature. Abiotic resources are non living resources like minerals and metals. Therefore, the term that directly matches the idea of a resource with known quantity is actual resources. Step-by-Step Solution: 1. Identify the key phrase in the question: resources whose quantity is known.2. Recall that actual resources have been surveyed and their quantity and quality have been determined by experts.3. Recognise that potential resources are believed to exist but are not fully surveyed or used, so their quantity is not fully known.4. Understand that natural resources is a broad category that does not specify whether quantity is known or unknown.5. Conclude that the best match to the given definition is actual resources. Verification / Alternative check: One way to verify is to think of examples. Coal deposits already mapped and mined in a particular region are actual resources because the reserves have been estimated and are being used. Wind energy in a region where no large scale wind farms have yet been built is a potential resource, because although the wind is available, its exploitable quantity has not been fully studied or tapped. This comparison confirms that the phrase in the question is associated with actual resources rather than potential or other types. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Option A: Natural resources simply refers to resources obtained from nature such as air, water, soil, and minerals. It does not guarantee that their quantity is known. Option C: Potential resources are those that exist and may be used in the future but their quantity and feasibility of extraction are not fully studied, so they do not match the definition of known quantity. Option D: Abiotic resources are non living resources like minerals, metals, and rocks. Again, some abiotic resources may be known, some may not; the term does not define known quantity. Option E: Biotic resources are living resources such as forests, animals, and fish. The term says nothing about whether their quantity has been surveyed and measured. Common Pitfalls: Students often confuse the pair actual and potential because both refer to usefulness. A helpful memory aid is that actual resources have actually been measured and used, while potential resources have potential use in the future. Another pitfall is to assume that the word natural means fully understood, which is not correct. Always focus on the definition given in the question, especially phrases like known quantity or measured reserves. Final Answer: Resources whose quantity is already known and measured are called actual resources.

Question 12

In balance of payments accounting, which account balance is equal to capital flows from the rest of the world minus capital flows to the rest of the world?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Macroeconomics and international economics frequently test knowledge of the balance of payments accounts. Learners must distinguish between the current account, the capital account, and related balances. The question here asks specifically about the account that records capital flows between a country and the rest of the world. Recognising the correct account is important for understanding foreign investment, borrowing, and financial integration. Given Data / Assumptions: We are considering a standard balance of payments framework. Capital flows from the rest of the world refer to inflows of capital into the domestic economy. Capital flows to the rest of the world refer to outflows or investments made abroad. We assume textbook definitions of current and capital account balances. Concept / Approach: The balance of payments is divided broadly into the current account and the capital account. The current account records trade in goods and services, income, and current transfers. The capital and financial account records capital inflows and outflows such as foreign direct investment, portfolio investment, and borrowing or lending. Therefore, when the question mentions capital flows to and from the rest of the world, it is directly describing the capital account balance, which is the net of such flows. Step-by-Step Solution: 1. Identify the key phrase: capital flows from and to the rest of the world.2. Recall that the current account is focused on exports, imports, income, and current transfers, not capital movements.3. Note that capital movements such as foreign investment, loans, and acquisition of financial assets are recorded in the capital and financial account.4. Understand that capital account balance equals capital inflows minus capital outflows over a period.5. Therefore, the balance described in the question corresponds to the capital account balance. Verification / Alternative check: To verify, imagine a country that receives foreign direct investment of 100 units and makes outward investment of 40 units. The net capital inflow is 60 units. This 60 unit surplus is recorded as part of the capital account balance, not the current account. If we were computing the current account, we would look at exports minus imports and similar items. This simple example confirms that the correct answer involves the capital account, not current or savings accounts. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Option A: The current account balance measures net exports of goods and services, net income, and current transfers. It is not defined directly in terms of capital flows. Option B: Savings account balance is a term from personal banking and has nothing to do with national level balance of payments accounting. Option D: Asset account balance is not a standard label in balance of payments classification and is too vague for this context. Option E: Official reserves account balance refers to changes in foreign exchange reserves held by the central bank, which is a narrower concept than total capital flows by private and public sectors together. Common Pitfalls: Students sometimes confuse capital account with current account because both appear in the overall balance of payments. A useful rule is that anything involving buying and selling of real and financial assets across borders is part of the capital and financial account, while trade in goods and services and income flows are part of the current account. Also, do not mix up individual banking terms like savings accounts with macroeconomic accounting categories. Final Answer: The balance that equals capital flows from the rest of the world minus capital flows to the rest of the world is the capital account balance.

Question 13

In consumer theory, which law states that when a consumer's demand for a good moves in the same direction as the consumer's income, this demand is inversely related to the price of the good?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Consumer theory in microeconomics is built around several basic laws that describe how quantity demanded responds to changes in price, income, and related variables. The question highlights a situation where demand for a normal good moves in the same direction as income but is inversely related to price. This description corresponds to the core idea of the law of demand, which is one of the most important principles in introductory economics. Given Data / Assumptions: The consumer is choosing a normal good, so demand rises with income. The demand for the good moves in the same direction as income, meaning higher income leads to higher demand. Demand is inversely related to price, meaning higher price leads to lower quantity demanded and vice versa. We assume ceteris paribus, that is other factors remain constant. Concept / Approach: The law of demand states that, other things being equal, there is an inverse relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demanded. As price falls, quantity demanded rises, and as price rises, quantity demanded falls. For normal goods, demand also typically increases with income. The combination of these ideas matches the description in the question. Other listed laws, such as the law of supply or law of substitution, do not directly describe the inverse price quantity relationship for consumers. Step-by-Step Solution: 1. Recognise that the question describes a demand function where demand increases with income, typical for a normal good.2. Note that it also states demand is inversely related to price, which is the core of the law of demand.3. Recall that the law of supply describes a direct relationship between price and quantity supplied, which is different from demand behaviour.4. Understand that the law of substitution refers to substitution between goods when relative prices change, not directly to demand versus price for a single good.5. Conclude that the statement in the question corresponds most closely to the law of demand. Verification / Alternative check: A simple everyday example confirms this. When the price of a favourite snack decreases, consumers usually buy more of it, holding income and other factors constant. When the price increases, they buy less or switch to substitutes. If the consumer's income increases, they are able to buy more of the snack at any given price. This behaviour is perfectly captured by the law of demand combined with the idea of a normal good. No other listed law captures both the inverse relationship with price and the normal relationship with income in such a direct way. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Option B: The law of supply describes producers, not consumers. It states that quantity supplied and price move in the same direction, not an inverse direction. Option C: The law of substitution focuses on the substitution effect between goods and does not directly summarise the overall relationship between price and quantity demanded for one good. Option D: The law of optimal choice is not a standard named law in basic textbooks and does not specifically refer to demand and price. Option E: The law of diminishing marginal utility explains why the demand curve slopes downward but does not itself state the complete inverse price quantity relationship; it is more about additional satisfaction from each unit. Common Pitfalls: Students sometimes confuse the law of demand with its underlying reasons such as diminishing marginal utility, income effect, and substitution effect. Remember that the law of demand is the final statement that quantity demanded varies inversely with price, holding other things constant. The other concepts are explanations for this law, not alternative laws. It is also important not to mix up the law of demand with the law of supply, since one applies to consumers and the other to producers. Final Answer: The situation described is explained by the law of demand.

Question 14

If a firm has zero variable costs or only fixed cost, under which market structure will the equilibrium quantity supplied be determined at the point where marginal revenue is zero?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: This question tests understanding of profit maximisation under different market structures when a firm faces zero variable cost or only fixed cost. In such a situation, total cost does not change with output, so the firm essentially maximises total revenue. The key is to recall which market structure allows a single firm to influence price through its output decisions and therefore leads to a condition where marginal revenue equals zero at the revenue maximising output. Given Data / Assumptions: The firm has zero variable cost or only fixed cost, so total cost is constant with respect to output. Profit equals total revenue minus total cost, and since cost is constant, profit maximisation coincides with revenue maximisation. We are asked which market structure yields equilibrium where marginal revenue is zero. Standard assumptions for monopoly and perfect competition apply. Concept / Approach: In perfect competition, an individual firm is a price taker and faces a perfectly elastic demand curve. Its marginal revenue equals the given market price for all levels of output and never becomes zero within the relevant range. In contrast, a monopolist faces a downward sloping market demand curve. As the monopolist expands output, price falls, and marginal revenue decreases and can eventually become zero. When cost is zero, profit is maximised where total revenue is maximised, which occurs where marginal revenue is zero. This condition is characteristic of a revenue maximising monopoly. Step-by-Step Solution: 1. With zero variable cost, total cost is either zero or only fixed, so it does not depend on output.2. Profit equals total revenue minus total cost. With constant total cost, profit is maximised when total revenue is maximised.3. Total revenue is maximised at the output level where marginal revenue equals zero, because at that point any further increase in output would reduce total revenue.4. Only a firm that has control over price through its output choices will face a downward sloping demand curve and a marginal revenue curve that can fall to zero.5. This description matches a monopoly rather than a perfectly competitive firm, which always sells at a fixed market price with marginal revenue equal to price.6. Therefore, under monopoly, a zero cost firm will choose an equilibrium output at the point where marginal revenue becomes zero. Verification / Alternative check: Consider a simple linear demand curve for a monopolist such as P = a - bQ, where P is price and Q is quantity. Total revenue is TR = P * Q = aQ - bQ^2. Marginal revenue is d(TR)/dQ = a - 2bQ. Setting marginal revenue equal to zero gives a - 2bQ = 0, so Q = a/(2b). This is the revenue maximising output. With zero cost, profit is highest at this quantity. In perfect competition, however, TR = P * Q with P constant, and marginal revenue is always equal to P, never zero for positive prices. This confirms that the scenario in the question is associated with monopoly. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Option A: In perfect competition, a single firm is a price taker. Marginal revenue equals price and does not fall to zero within the relevant range, so equilibrium is not given by marginal revenue equal to zero. Option C: Oligopoly involves a few firms with interdependent decisions. The simple marginal revenue equals zero rule for a single firm with full market control does not usually describe its equilibrium in such basic questions. Option D: Monopolistic competition involves many firms selling differentiated products. While each has some market power, basic exam questions about a single firm with full control over the market are typically referring to monopoly, not monopolistic competition. Option E: Duopoly is a special case of oligopoly with two firms and strategic interaction, which again is not what is implied in this question. Common Pitfalls: A common confusion is between profit maximisation and revenue maximisation. Usually, profit maximisation occurs where marginal revenue equals marginal cost. In this special case of zero cost, marginal cost is zero, and profit maximisation could occur where marginal revenue equals zero if the entire relevant range has marginal cost of zero. Students also sometimes forget that a perfectly competitive firm has marginal revenue equal to price and does not have a downward sloping demand curve. Keeping these distinctions clear helps avoid mistakes. Final Answer: For a firm with zero variable costs or only fixed cost, the equilibrium quantity supplied at the point where marginal revenue is zero is characteristic of a monopoly.

Question 15

In short run cost analysis, what is the typical shape of the average variable cost curve for a competitive firm?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Short run cost curves such as the average variable cost (AVC) curve and average total cost (ATC) curve are central to microeconomics. Examinations frequently test whether students remember the typical shapes of these curves and understand the economic reasons behind them. The question asks specifically about the shape of the average variable cost curve in the short run. Given Data / Assumptions: We are analysing a firm in the short run with at least one fixed factor. Input prices are assumed constant. Production initially experiences increasing returns and then diminishing returns. We are asked about the shape of the average variable cost curve. Concept / Approach: The average variable cost curve relates the variable cost per unit of output to the level of output. Due to the law of variable proportions or diminishing marginal returns, as a firm increases output, variable cost per unit initially falls because the fixed factor is used more efficiently. After a certain level, overcrowding and inefficiency start to appear and marginal cost rises, which pushes average variable cost upward. This combination of falling then rising values produces a U shaped curve for average variable cost. Step-by-Step Solution: 1. At low levels of output, workers and variable inputs can use fixed capital more efficiently, so variable cost per unit declines.2. This causes the average variable cost to fall initially as output increases.3. After some point, diminishing marginal returns set in as more variable input is applied to the same fixed input.4. The additional cost of producing extra units rises, and marginal cost increases sharply.5. Because marginal cost eventually exceeds average variable cost, it pulls the average variable cost upward, creating the upward sloping portion of the U shape.6. Thus, the overall shape of the average variable cost curve is U shaped, first falling then rising. Verification / Alternative check: A numerical example helps verify this. Suppose variable cost for successive units of output is such that average variable cost falls from 10 to 8 to 7, and then begins to rise to 8 and 9 as output expands further. Plotting these values against output yields a curve that falls initially, reaches a minimum, and then rises again, clearly forming a U shape. This pattern is found in standard textbook diagrams of short run cost curves. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Option B: A V shaped curve implies that average variable cost falls or rises in a straight line, which is not how cost behaves in typical production functions. Option C: An X shaped curve would suggest two turning points and complex behaviour, which is not supported by basic production theory. Option D: A W shaped curve also suggests multiple local minima and maxima, which is not the standard shape in introductory analysis. Option E: A perfectly horizontal curve would mean constant average variable cost regardless of output, which contradicts the law of variable proportions. Common Pitfalls: Students sometimes mix up the shapes of marginal cost, average variable cost, and average total cost. All three are typically U shaped in the short run, with marginal cost cutting both average curves at their minimum points. It is useful to remember that the underlying cause in each case is diminishing marginal returns after a certain level of output. Another pitfall is to assume strange shapes like W or X just because they appear in options; examining the logic of costs usually points back to the simple U shape. Final Answer: The average variable cost curve in the short run is typically U shaped.

Question 16

If a firm under a particular market structure has zero costs or only fixed cost, and its equilibrium output is determined where marginal revenue is zero, this firm is operating under which market structure?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: This question digs deeper into the idea of profit maximisation when a firm faces no variable cost and only fixed cost. Under such conditions, total cost does not change with output, so the firm behaves like a revenue maximiser. The question connects this to the condition that equilibrium is reached where marginal revenue is zero and asks which market structure matches this description. Given Data / Assumptions: The firm's cost structure consists of zero variable cost or only fixed cost. Profit equals total revenue minus a constant total cost. Profit maximisation therefore coincides with total revenue maximisation. Equilibrium is said to occur at the point where marginal revenue is zero. Standard textbook models of perfect competition and monopoly are assumed. Concept / Approach: A monopoly faces a downward sloping demand curve and therefore a downward sloping marginal revenue curve that can cross zero. The revenue maximising output is where marginal revenue becomes zero, because beyond that point extra units add no revenue and may reduce it. A perfectly competitive firm, in contrast, faces a perfectly elastic demand curve at the market price and has marginal revenue equal to price, which does not fall to zero within the normal range of operation. Hence, the combination of zero cost and equilibrium at marginal revenue equal to zero points clearly to monopoly. Step-by-Step Solution: 1. With zero variable cost, total cost is fixed and independent of output.2. Profit maximisation under constant total cost is equivalent to maximising total revenue.3. Total revenue is maximised where marginal revenue, the change in revenue from selling one more unit, becomes zero.4. For marginal revenue to decline to zero, the firm must face a downward sloping demand curve, so that price falls as quantity increases.5. In basic theory, a single seller facing the whole market demand curve is a monopolist; this is where we typically draw a downward sloping marginal revenue curve crossing the quantity axis.6. Therefore, the market structure described is monopoly. Verification / Alternative check: Using a simple linear demand curve P = a - bQ, total revenue is TR = aQ - bQ^2 and marginal revenue is a - 2bQ. At marginal revenue equal to zero, Q = a/(2b), which is the revenue maximising output. If cost is zero, this is also the profit maximising output. This is the standard monopoly revenue maximisation result. In perfect competition, marginal revenue equals the constant market price, so it does not fall to zero as output increases, which shows that the described condition cannot apply to a competitive firm. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Option A: Perfect competition involves many small firms that are price takers, and their marginal revenue equals the market price. It does not fall to zero while the price remains positive. Option C: Oligopoly has a few firms whose outcomes depend on strategic interaction. The simple rule marginal revenue equal to zero for a firm with full market control is not a standard description of equilibrium here. Option D: Monopolistic competition features many firms with differentiated products, but the textbook marginal revenue equal to zero when cost is zero is usually presented in the context of a pure monopoly. Option E: Duopoly is a special case of oligopoly with two firms, again involving strategic interaction rather than a single firm controlling the entire market. Common Pitfalls: Students sometimes treat monopoly and monopolistic competition as almost the same. A simple cue is that questions referring to a single firm that controls the market and sets price using the entire demand curve typically point to monopoly. Another pitfall is forgetting that marginal revenue equal to zero is a revenue maximisation condition, not the usual profit maximisation condition. Only when marginal cost is zero over the relevant range does profit maximisation coincide with this condition. Final Answer: When a zero cost firm chooses equilibrium output where marginal revenue is zero, it is operating as a monopoly.

Question 17

In short run cost theory, what is the usual shape of the short run marginal cost curve for a firm as output increases?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Short run marginal cost is one of the most frequently drawn curves in microeconomics. It indicates how the cost of producing one extra unit of output changes as the firm expands production. The typical shape of this curve summarises the impact of increasing and then diminishing returns to the variable factor. Recognising this shape is essential for understanding firm behaviour and cost minimisation. Given Data / Assumptions: The firm operates in the short run with at least one fixed input. Input prices are constant. The production function exhibits increasing returns initially and then diminishing marginal returns. We focus on the shape of the short run marginal cost curve. Concept / Approach: Marginal cost is defined as the change in total cost when one extra unit of output is produced. When marginal product of the variable input is rising, each additional unit of input adds more to output, so the extra cost per unit of output tends to fall, leading to declining marginal cost. After a point, diminishing marginal returns set in; marginal product falls, and each extra unit of output requires more input and therefore more cost, causing marginal cost to rise. Together, these phases yield a U shaped marginal cost curve. Step-by-Step Solution: 1. At low output levels, underutilised fixed inputs mean that adding more variable input increases efficiency.2. As efficiency improves, the cost of producing additional units declines, so marginal cost falls.3. Once capacity is better utilised, diminishing marginal returns occur because the fixed factor becomes a bottleneck.4. The firm must use much more variable input to produce extra units, so the extra cost per unit of output increases.5. Therefore, marginal cost first falls and then rises, giving the characteristic U shape. Verification / Alternative check: If we plot numerical values such as marginal cost equal to 12, 10, 9, 9, 10, 12, and 15 for successive units of output, the pattern clearly falls first and then rises. A continuous curve fitted through such points would look U shaped. This matches the standard diagrams used in textbooks where the marginal cost curve cuts the average variable cost and average total cost curves at their minimum points, further confirming the U shaped form. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Option B: A V shape implies a straight line down and then straight line up, which does not reflect the smooth curvature implied by production theory. Option C: An X shape suggests two crossing lines, not the smooth U curve associated with marginal cost. Option D: A W shape would indicate multiple phases of falling and rising cost, which is not part of the basic short run model. Option E: A perfectly vertical curve would mean marginal cost is infinite at all output levels, which is neither realistic nor implied by the law of variable proportions. Common Pitfalls: Students sometimes misremember which curves are U shaped. A good rule is that, in the short run, marginal cost, average variable cost, and average total cost are all typically U shaped. Another mistake is to think marginal cost is always rising, but this ignores the initial phase of increasing returns. Connecting marginal cost behaviour to marginal product through the cost of the variable input helps keep the reasoning clear. Final Answer: The short run marginal cost curve for a firm is typically U shaped.

Question 18

In a centrally planned economy, which institution plans and directs all the important economic activities of the country?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Different economic systems are distinguished by who makes the key economic decisions about what to produce, how to produce, and for whom to produce. In a centrally planned economy, also known as a command economy, decisions are not left to the free market. Examinations often ask which body or institution is responsible for planning and directing economic activities in such a system. Given Data / Assumptions: The question focuses on centrally planned or command economies. Important economic activities include production targets, investment, pricing, and distribution. We assume the classic textbook model of a central planning authority. We compare roles of government, citizens, industrialists, and judiciary. Concept / Approach: In a centrally planned economy, the central authority, usually the government through a planning commission or similar body, sets production targets, allocates resources, fixes prices, and decides distribution. Individual choice and market forces play only a limited role. This sharply contrasts with a market economy, where these decisions emerge from the interactions of many buyers and sellers. Therefore, the correct answer is that the government or central planning authority plans the economic activities. Step-by-Step Solution: 1. Identify that a centrally planned economy is being discussed.2. Recall that in a command system, the government owns or controls major means of production and decides output and allocation.3. Recognise that decisions are made through plans such as five year plans or central directives.4. Understand that private industrialists or consumers do not independently decide overall production in such a system.5. Conclude that the government or central planning authority is responsible for planning economic activities. Verification / Alternative check: Historical examples help verify the concept. In former centrally planned economies, such as the Soviet Union, production and investment decisions were tightly controlled by central ministries and planning agencies. They decided how many units of steel, coal, and consumer goods should be produced and how resources were to be allocated. Citizens and industrial firms had very limited autonomy. This is very different from market economies where decisions are decentralised. These historical patterns confirm that planning is done by government bodies in centrally planned systems. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Option A: Industrialists are key decision makers in market or mixed economies where private firms dominate production decisions, not in strictly centrally planned systems. Option B: Citizens influence decisions through buying and selling in a market economy. In a command economy, consumer choice is restricted and does not determine overall production. Option D: The judiciary interprets and enforces laws but does not usually plan economic activities or set production targets. Option E: Private commercial banks may influence credit allocation but are not the primary planning authority for national economic activities in a centrally planned setup. Common Pitfalls: Students sometimes confuse mixed economies, where government and private sector both play roles, with centrally planned economies, where the government dominates decisions. Another mistake is assuming that planning is always done by experts detached from government, but in standard textbook definitions the planning authority is either part of the government or fully controlled by it. Remembering the difference between central planning and market based coordination will help answer many similar questions. Final Answer: In a centrally planned economy, all important economic activities are planned and directed by the government or a central planning authority.

Question 19

Which law states that the marginal product of a factor initially rises with employment but, after a certain level of employment, begins to fall as more units of the factor are used?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: The behaviour of marginal product as more units of a variable factor are employed with a fixed factor is a key topic in production theory. The question describes a situation where marginal product rises at first and then falls after a certain level of employment. This pattern is explained by a well known law of production that is studied in the context of the short run. Given Data / Assumptions: We are in the short run, where at least one factor is fixed. The variable factor is increased while the fixed factor remains constant. Marginal product initially increases with employment. After some level of employment, marginal product begins to decline. We use standard production theory terminology. Concept / Approach: The law described is commonly known as the law of variable proportions, also referred to as the law of diminishing marginal returns. It states that as more units of a variable factor (like labour) are employed with a fixed factor (like land or machinery), total product at first increases at an increasing rate, then at a diminishing rate, and eventually marginal product may become zero or negative. This behaviour comes from the fact that the fixed factor becomes increasingly crowded as more variable input is added. Step-by-Step Solution: 1. Identify that the question focuses on marginal product behaviour as employment increases.2. Note that marginal product initially rises, indicating increasing returns to the variable factor.3. The question then states that marginal product starts falling after a certain point, indicating diminishing returns.4. This pattern of rising and then falling marginal product is exactly what the law of variable proportions explains.5. Therefore, the correct name for the law described in the question is the law of variable proportions. Verification / Alternative check: To verify, imagine a small farm with fixed land area. Initially, adding more workers allows better division of labour and use of land, so marginal product increases. After some point, however, the land becomes crowded and each extra worker has less land or equipment to work with, so the additional output contributed by each new worker falls. This pattern is observed in many production processes and is the essence of the law of variable proportions. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Option A: The phrase law of diminishing marginal product describes only the declining part and does not emphasise the initial rise in marginal product. The widely used textbook term that covers the complete pattern is law of variable proportions. Option C: The short run law of supply relates price and quantity supplied, not marginal product behaviour in production. Option D: The law of the long run is not a standard term in basic production theory and does not refer to marginal product behaviour. Option E: The law of increasing opportunity cost is related to the shape of the production possibility curve, not specifically to marginal product of a single factor in a firm. Common Pitfalls: Students sometimes think the law starts only when marginal product begins to fall, but the law of variable proportions actually covers the entire process of increasing returns, constant returns, and diminishing returns to the variable factor. Another pitfall is mixing this law with economies of scale, which are a long run concept involving changes in all factors. Remember that law of variable proportions is a short run phenomenon, holding some inputs fixed. Final Answer: The law described is the law of variable proportions.

Question 20

In the theory of demand, which curve represents the combined demand of all individual consumers in the market for a good at different price levels?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Demand analysis distinguishes between the behaviour of a single consumer and the behaviour of the market as a whole. While individual demand curves show how one consumer responds to price changes, examinations frequently ask what we call the curve that aggregates the behaviour of all consumers. Recognising this term is essential for understanding market equilibrium in microeconomics. Given Data / Assumptions: We have many individual consumers for a good in a market. Each consumer has an individual demand schedule and a corresponding demand curve. We are interested in the total quantity demanded by all consumers at each price. The question asks for the name of the curve that represents this combined demand. Concept / Approach: For each possible price of a good, we can add up the quantities demanded by all individual consumers to obtain the total quantity demanded in the market. Plotting these total quantities against the corresponding prices gives the market demand curve. This curve is the horizontal summation of all individual demand curves. It is distinct from indifference curves, which represent preferences of a single consumer, and from abstract curves like diminishing utility curves. Step-by-Step Solution: 1. For a given price, list the quantity demanded by each individual consumer.2. Add these quantities to obtain the total quantity demanded at that price.3. Repeat the process for different price levels to construct a schedule of total quantity demanded.4. Plot the price on the vertical axis and the total quantity demanded on the horizontal axis.5. The curve that joins these points is called the market demand curve, because it shows the aggregate demand of all consumers at each price. Verification / Alternative check: Imagine a simple market with two consumers. At a price of 10 units of currency, consumer A demands 3 units and consumer B demands 2 units, so total market demand is 5 units. At a price of 8, A demands 4 and B demands 3, so total demand is 7. Plotting these totals against price yields a curve that reflects the combined behaviour of both consumers. Extending this idea to many consumers gives the market demand curve. This confirms that the curve described in the question is the market demand curve. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Option A: Monotonic demand curve is not a standard term. While demand curves are usually downward sloping, the accepted name for the aggregate curve is market demand curve. Option B: An indifference curve shows different combinations of two goods that provide equal satisfaction to a single consumer. It does not show quantity demanded at different prices. Option D: Diminishing utility curve is more of a conceptual phrase and not the correct term used for the aggregate demand curve. Option E: Individual demand curve refers to one consumer only, not to all consumers combined. Common Pitfalls: One common mistake is to confuse individual and market demand curves. Remember that the market demand curve is obtained by horizontal summation of all individual demand curves, not by averaging prices or vertically adding quantities. Another pitfall lies in mixing up demand curves with indifference curves, which live in a different diagram (goods space rather than price quantity space). Keeping track of what is on each axis helps avoid this confusion. Final Answer: The curve that represents the combined demand of all consumers in the market at different prices is called the market demand curve.

Indian Economy Questions