Q: Offset in a first-order process controlled by proportional (P-only) control with gain Kc: what modification to the control strategy most effectively eliminates steady-state offset without relying on extreme gain values?

Introduction / Context: Proportional-only control of a load-disturbed process typically results in a steady-state error (offset) unless the process has integral action itself. Engineers often need to remove this bias so that the controlled variable exactly matches the set point at steady state. Given Data / Assumptions: Process is well approximated by a first-order lag with nonzero steady-state gain. Controller is initially proportional only with gain Kc. Load disturbances or set-point changes can occur. Concept / Approach: With P-only control, the control signal at steady state is finite and requires a nonzero error to sustain the actuator output that balances the load—this is offset. Adding integral action introduces a term proportional to the time integral of the error, which accumulates until the steady-state error is driven to zero (for a stable, reachable operating point). Derivative action shapes dynamics but does not change the steady-state error for step loads. Step-by-Step Solution: Recognize that P-only produces a nonzero steady-state error for step loads.Integral term integrates error over time; at steady state, error must be zero to prevent integrator windup.Conclude that adding integral control eliminates offset. Verification / Alternative check: Closed-loop steady-state analysis shows that with PI control, the error for a step input is zero if the loop is stable and actuator limits are not hit. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Reducing Kc: increases offset and slows response.Derivative control: affects transient response and noise sensitivity, not steady-state offset.None: incorrect because PI is the standard remedy. Common Pitfalls: Raising Kc excessively to reduce offset risks oscillation; integral action is the principled fix. Final Answer: Introducing integral (I) control

Question 1

Usable temperature range of copper resistance thermometers (RTDs): Select the typical operating range for a copper resistance thermometer in industrial service.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) use the temperature dependence of metal resistivity. Copper, platinum, and nickel are common sensing materials. Choosing a sensor requires matching its linearity and stability to the expected temperature window. This question asks for the typical range of a copper RTD. Given Data / Assumptions: Copper offers good sensitivity and linearity at low to moderate temperatures. Oxidation and material stability limit the upper range compared with platinum. We focus on commonly accepted industrial ranges rather than absolute extremes under laboratory conditions. Concept / Approach: Copper RTDs are widely used from cryogenic service up to roughly 150–200 °C, beyond which oxidation and drift degrade accuracy and life. Therefore, a representative range of −200 to 150 °C is often cited in textbooks and specifications for copper elements in process applications, distinguishing them from platinum RTDs that reach higher temperatures with better long-term stability. Step-by-Step Solution: Recall comparative limits: copper lower than platinum.Match to offered ranges: only −200 to 150 °C aligns with common copper practice.Select option (b). Verification / Alternative check: Vendor catalogs list copper RTD assemblies targeting HVAC, cryogenic, and moderate-temperature duties with upper limits around 150–200 °C depending on sheath and atmosphere. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 0 to 150 °C: Omits valid sub-zero usage. 350–750 °C and 500–900 °C: Far above copper’s practical stable range; platinum is preferred there. −50 to 50 °C: Too narrow for typical copper RTD capability. Common Pitfalls: Assuming all RTDs can reach high temperatures; material selection matters for stability as well as range. Final Answer: -200 to 150 °C

Question 2

Controller terminology in PID tuning: In classical PID nomenclature, the term “reset rate” is another name for which tuning parameter or action time?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: PID controllers appear in multiple forms (parallel, series, velocity). Terms like “reset,” “integral,” and “repeats per minute” are used interchangeably across industries. This question checks whether you can map “reset rate” to the correct integral parameter. Given Data / Assumptions: PID has proportional, integral (reset), and derivative actions. Reset can be expressed as time (minutes per repeat) or as a rate (repeats per minute). We assume standard ISA/engineering terminology. Concept / Approach: Integral action accumulates error to eliminate offset. In “minutes per repeat” form, the integral time Ti specifies how long the integral term takes to produce the same output change as the proportional term would for a sustained error. The “reset rate” is simply the reciprocal representation (repeats per minute) of the same quantity. Hence, reset rate ↔ integral action ↔ integral time (Ti). Step-by-Step Solution: Identify “reset” as integral action in PID.Recall equivalence: reset rate [repeats/min] = 1 / Ti [min/repeat].Therefore, “reset rate” corresponds to integral time parameterisation. Verification / Alternative check: Controller datasheets label I-term either as Ti (time) or Reset (1/Ti); both govern the same integral contribution. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Dead time: A process/transport delay, not a controller tuning parameter. Derivative time: Sets anticipatory action; unrelated to reset. Sampling period: Applies to digital control, not a synonym for reset. Common Pitfalls: Confusing units; ensure you convert between “minutes per repeat” and “repeats per minute” consistently during tuning. Final Answer: Integral time

Question 3

Rhodium content in Pt–Rh thermocouples: What is the normal percentage of rhodium in the platinum–rhodium element used in common high-temperature thermocouples?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Platinum–rhodium thermocouples are widely used for high-temperature measurement in furnaces and kilns due to stability and oxidation resistance. The alloy composition defines thermoelectric properties and usable temperature limits. This question asks for the normal rhodium percentage in the platinum–rhodium leg of a standard pair. Given Data / Assumptions: Common noble-metal pairs include Type S (Pt-10%Rh/Pt) and Type R (Pt-13%Rh/Pt). “Normal” in many curricula refers to the widely specified industrial standard. We select the typical textbook value associated with the common pair. Concept / Approach: Among Pt–Rh thermocouples, Type R uses 13% rhodium in one leg (Pt-13%Rh versus pure Pt), and Type S uses 10% Rh. Many general exam questions reference the 13% Rh composition as the standard “normal” figure for platinum–rhodium elements, especially when a single value is requested without distinguishing type R versus S. Step-by-Step Solution: List common compositions: 10% Rh (Type S) and 13% Rh (Type R).Select the widely cited “normal” value in general references: 13% Rh.Confirm that other listed percentages are atypical for standard Pt–Rh thermocouples. Verification / Alternative check: Thermocouple standards (IEC/ASTM) document Types R and S; Type R specifies Pt–13%Rh, validating the chosen percentage. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 0.1 or 3: Far below standard alloy proportions; would not yield correct EMF. 29 or 50: Not standard; such high rhodium content drastically changes properties and cost. Common Pitfalls: Confusing Type R and Type S values; remembering that the common exam figure is 13% helps. Final Answer: 13

Question 4

Solar radiation measurement in process and environmental engineering: a pyranometer is an instrument used for measuring which component of solar irradiance on a horizontal surface?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Pyranometers are ubiquitous sensors in solar energy studies, greenhouse operations, climatic testing of materials, and heat balance calculations in chemical and environmental engineering. The question checks whether you can distinguish among types of solar measurements: global (total), beam (direct normal), and diffuse components, and recognize which instrument measures which. Given Data / Assumptions: Pyranometer is a thermopile-based radiometer with a hemispherical (cosine-response) dome. We assume the sensor is mounted horizontally unless otherwise specified. Standard solar radiation components: beam (direct) on a normal surface, diffuse from the sky dome, and global (beam projected onto horizontal + diffuse). Concept / Approach: A pyranometer measures the irradiance received from the entire hemisphere above the sensor. When installed on a horizontal plane, it captures the sum of the diffuse sky radiation and the beam component projected onto the horizontal (cosine of solar zenith angle). This total is called global horizontal irradiance. By contrast, a pyrheliometer points directly at the sun and measures only the beam (direct normal) component through a collimated tube. Bright sunshine duration is commonly logged by a sunshine recorder (e.g., Campbell–Stokes) or electronic threshold devices rather than a pyranometer alone. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the instrument: pyranometer (hemispherical field, cosine response).Identify the plane: horizontal mounting implies horizontal global irradiance.Map to solar components: global = beam (projected) + diffuse.Select the option describing total/global on a horizontal plane. Verification / Alternative check: Standards (e.g., ISO/IEC for solar measurements) describe pyranometers as broadband instruments for global or diffuse on a plane (with shading for diffuse). Pyrheliometers are specified for direct normal irradiance using solar tracking. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Beam only: That is a pyrheliometer function.Bright sunshine duration only: That is a recorder/logger concept, not a radiometer reading.Diffuse only: Requires a shading device; a bare pyranometer reads global.None of these: Incorrect because global is precisely what a pyranometer measures on a horizontal plane. Common Pitfalls: Confusing “global” with “direct”; forgetting that a horizontal pyranometer captures both diffuse and the cosine-projected beam; overlooking the need for shading to isolate diffuse measurement. Final Answer: Global (total) radiation on a horizontal plane

Question 5

Pressure measurement fundamentals: an aneroid barometer (without liquid) is designed to measure which kind of pressure directly?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Pressure terminology—absolute, gauge, atmospheric, and differential—is foundational for instrumentation. An aneroid barometer replaces the mercury column with a sealed, flexible capsule (aneroid cell) and is widely used for weather observations and altitude estimation. Given Data / Assumptions: Instrument: aneroid barometer with an evacuated elastic capsule. Environment: open to ambient air, not connected to a process tap. Output: dial indicating atmospheric pressure. Concept / Approach: The evacuated capsule expands or contracts with changes in ambient atmospheric pressure. The mechanism thus reads the absolute atmospheric pressure—there is no reference to another pressure except the vacuum inside the capsule. Gauge pressure is pressure measured relative to ambient; a barometer does not read gauge pressure of a process line. Differential pressure transmitters compare two process taps; again, not applicable to a barometer. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the reference: internal near-vacuum vs. ambient.Recognize that the ambient acts as the measured variable.Conclude the instrument directly indicates atmospheric (absolute) pressure. Verification / Alternative check: Textbooks define barometric pressure as absolute; altimeters are essentially calibrated aneroid barometers adjusted for standard atmospheres. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Absolute pressure of a sealed process: Requires a sealed absolute sensor connected to the process, not an aneroid barometer open to air.Vacuum only: A barometer measures full atmospheric range, not just vacuum.Gauge or differential pressure: Those require separate references and connections. Common Pitfalls: Equating “barometer” with “gauge”; remember barometer = atmospheric absolute, pressure gauge = typically gauge pressure relative to atmosphere. Final Answer: Atmospheric pressure (absolute atmospheric pressure)

Question 6

International temperature scales and fixed points: identify the pair that does not belong to the classic list of seven fixed-point substances historically selected for calibration.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Standardized temperature scales use reproducible phase-change points of pure substances to define calibration anchors. Historically, sets of fixed points (e.g., boiling or freezing points of specific metals and gases) were selected for international temperature scales before modern ITS-90 refinements. This question asks you to spot the pair that does not fit the classic selection and conventional use of those substances. Given Data / Assumptions: “Seven substances” refers to an earlier, widely taught list of agreed materials. Typical fixed points used: freezing points of pure metals (tin, zinc, silver, antimony), and reference points for water and certain gases like oxygen or sulphur. We focus on whether the specified phase (freezing vs. boiling) matches conventional fixed-point usage. Concept / Approach: In metrology, freezing (melting) points of metals are favored because they are more reproducible than boiling points at normal pressure. Zinc’s freezing point, not its boiling point, is the standard fixed point. Mercury’s commonly used reference is its triple point (or carefully controlled points), not the ordinary “freezing point” in older barometer contexts. Hence, the pair “zinc (boiling point) and mercury (freezing point)” is mismatched with accepted fixed-point practice, making it the outlier. Step-by-Step Solution: Review typical fixed points: water (ice/steam), oxygen or sulphur points, and metal freezing points for antimony, silver, tin, zinc.Check each option’s phase usage.Identify the pair that uses a nonstandard phase (zinc boiling) or an atypical mercury reference.Select the out-of-list pair. Verification / Alternative check: Modern ITS-90 emphasizes triple points and metal freezing points; historical lists align with those principles and avoid boiling points where possible due to pressure sensitivity. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Ice/steam: Classical reference points for Celsius scale.Oxygen/sulphur: Recognized in earlier scales for low and mid-high anchors.Antimony/silver and tin/zinc (freezing): Standard metal fixed points. Common Pitfalls: Confusing triple points with freezing points; overlooking that boiling points are pressure-dependent and thus inferior as fixed points without strict pressure control. Final Answer: Zinc (boiling point) and mercury (freezing point)

Question 7

Liquid-in-glass thermometers and fluid selection: considering volumetric expansion with temperature, which of the following liquids has the smallest volumetric expansion over a typical operating range (hence enabling finer scale spacing)?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: In liquid-in-glass thermometers, the choice of the working liquid determines readability, linearity, temperature range, and chemical compatibility. A key property is the coefficient of volumetric expansion: lower expansion yields less movement per degree, which affects the scale design and range, while higher expansion permits wider spacing but may limit usable range or linearity. Given Data / Assumptions: Liquids considered: water, mercury, methyl alcohol, carbon tetrachloride, toluene. We compare general coefficients over ordinary laboratory ranges (well above the anomalous 0–4 °C region for water). Concept / Approach: Mercury exhibits a relatively low and fairly linear volumetric expansion across a wide temperature range compared with many organic liquids. Alcohols (e.g., methyl alcohol) and organic solvents like carbon tetrachloride or toluene have higher expansion coefficients, facilitating low-temperature thermometers but with larger scale changes and different material constraints. Water complicates matters due to its anomaly near 4 °C and is seldom used as a working fluid in sealed thermometers. Hence, among the listed choices, mercury undergoes the smallest volumetric expansion for a given temperature rise in typical practice, which is one reason for its historical dominance in precise laboratory thermometers. Step-by-Step Solution: Recall relative expansion: organics > mercury across common lab ranges.Account for water’s anomaly: unsuitable and non-monotonic near 0–4 °C.Select the liquid with the smallest expansion: mercury. Verification / Alternative check: Property tables list mercury’s volumetric expansion lower than typical alcohols and many organics; precision thermometers historically favor mercury for this and other reasons (visibility, conductivity, non-wetting glass with proper treatment). Why Other Options Are Wrong: Water: Anomalous behavior and not used as a sealed working fluid.Alcohols and CCl4/toluene: Higher expansion coefficients than mercury. Common Pitfalls: Confusing “minimum expansion” with “best readability.” High expansion can improve readability but may compromise range and linearity; the question asks strictly for minimum expansion. Final Answer: Mercury

Question 8

Vacuum units: in very low-pressure work, 1 micron (μ) is defined as how many millimetres of mercury (mm Hg) absolute at 0 °C?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Vacuum measurements span many orders of magnitude. Technicians and engineers frequently convert between torr (mm Hg), microns (micrometres of mercury), pascals, and psi(absolute). Understanding the unit definitions prevents large errors in vacuum system design and calibration. Given Data / Assumptions: Definition sought: 1 micron (μ) for pressure. Reference temperature: 0 °C (traditional for mm Hg definition). Concept / Approach: By definition in vacuum practice: 1 torr = 1 mm Hg. A micron (also called micrometre of mercury) is 1/1000 of a millimetre of mercury. Therefore: 1 μ = 0.001 mm Hg. In SI, 1 torr ≈ 133.322 Pa; thus 1 μ ≈ 0.133 Pa, which helps cross-check calculations across unit systems. Step-by-Step Solution: Start with 1 torr = 1 mm Hg.Define micron: 1 μ = 10^−3 mm Hg.Therefore 1 μ = 0.001 mm Hg. Verification / Alternative check: Vacuum technology references and gauge calibration guides consistently use this identity; many instruments display both torr and microns on the same scale. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 0.0001, 0.01, 0.1, 1.0 mm Hg: These correspond to 0.1 μ, 10 μ, 100 μ, and 1000 μ respectively, not 1 μ. Common Pitfalls: Confusing microns with micrometres in length; here “micron” refers to pressure, not distance. Also, beware of temperature and gravity conventions in historical mm Hg definitions. Final Answer: 0.001 mm Hg

Question 9

Upper temperature range of mercury-in-glass thermometers: up to approximately what temperature (°C) can a standard pressurized mercury thermometer be used?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Every temperature sensor has a practical operating range determined by materials, fluid properties, and construction. Mercury-in-glass thermometers are accurate and stable but limited by mercury vapor pressure, glass softening, and safety considerations. Given Data / Assumptions: Standard laboratory mercury thermometer with nitrogen overpressure and suitable glass. No special fused-silica or gallium substitution assumed. Concept / Approach: Standard mercury-in-glass thermometers are typically serviceable up to roughly 350 °C. Above this, mercury’s vapor pressure grows significantly, and the glass envelope and sealing become limiting; readability and stability degrade, and safety concerns increase. Lower-range versions (e.g., 0–100 °C) are constrained by scale, not by physics; higher-range measurements are better handled by thermocouples or radiation pyrometers. Step-by-Step Solution: Consider fluid properties: mercury boiling point is 357 °C at 1 atm, but practical upper limit is slightly lower.Account for construction improvements (nitrogen fill) to extend range modestly.Adopt standard catalog value ~350 °C as practical limit. Verification / Alternative check: Manufacturer datasheets commonly list maximum scales near 300–360 °C depending on glass and pressurization, supporting 350 °C as a representative cap. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 100 °C or 250 °C: Understate the achievable range of pressure-filled mercury designs.750 °C or 1200 °C: Far exceed mercury/glass limits; such temperatures require thermocouples or pyrometers. Common Pitfalls: Confusing the boiling point with the usable range; “usable” is set by accuracy and mechanical integrity, not just the fluid’s phase change temperature. Final Answer: 350 °C

Question 10

Application range of Bourdon tube pressure gauges: for which range are Bourdon gauges typically used most effectively (units: kg/cm²)?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Bourdon tube gauges are rugged mechanical devices that convert elastic deformation of a curved tube into pointer motion, widely used in plants for medium to high pressures. Understanding their preferred operating range supports correct instrument selection and accuracy expectations. Given Data / Assumptions: Units expressed as kg/cm²; “gauge” means relative to atmosphere. Typical industrial Bourdon gauge with C-type or helical tube. Concept / Approach: Bourdon gauges excel at moderate-to-high positive pressures and can be built for very high ranges. Accuracy and resolution are better when the working pressure is in the mid-scale region. While compound Bourdon gauges can indicate vacuum, specialized devices (e.g., McLeod, Pirani, capacitance manometers) provide better accuracy at low or vacuum pressures. Therefore, the classic textbook selection highlights Bourdon gauges for pressures greater than a few kg/cm² (gauge), here represented as > 2 kg/cm² (gauge). Step-by-Step Solution: Match device characteristics (elastic tube) to pressure magnitude.Note limited sensitivity at very low pressures or vacuum.Select the option indicating > 2 kg/cm² (gauge). Verification / Alternative check: Vendor catalogs show spans from a few to thousands of kPa; accuracy classes (EN 837) emphasize best performance in mid-to-high spans. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Below atmospheric/very low gauge: Sensitivity and accuracy are limited.Absolute notation in option d is not the typical Bourdon gauge spec.“Exactly atmospheric”: Not a pressure range. Common Pitfalls: Using a high-range Bourdon to read tiny pressure changes results in poor resolution; select an appropriate range to keep normal operation near mid-scale. Final Answer: > 2 kg/cm² (gauge)

Question 11

Thermocouple construction basics: all thermocouples used for temperature measurement rely on dissimilar metal __________ to generate a thermoelectric voltage.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Thermocouples are among the most common industrial temperature sensors. They harness the Seebeck effect: a voltage is produced in a loop made of two dissimilar conductors when their junctions are at different temperatures. Recognizing the essential construction element helps avoid misconceptions about form factor vs. function. Given Data / Assumptions: We focus on the dissimilar-material requirement, not the geometry of the protective sheath. Common types include K, J, T, S, R, B, and N, each defined by specific wire alloys. Concept / Approach: The fundamental element is two wires (or conductors) of different alloys joined at a measuring junction, with the other ends forming the reference. While these wires may be formed into strips, foils, or small beads for specialized applications, the canonical and most widespread construction is with wires. The dissimilarity is what matters: identical metals would not develop a net Seebeck voltage in a closed loop when junctions are at different temperatures. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the active components: two dissimilar conductors.Realize most practical thermocouples are made from standardized wires.Select “wires” as the correct completion. Verification / Alternative check: Standards (IEC 60584, ANSI) specify thermocouple wire compositions and tolerances, reflecting wire-based construction as the norm. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Strips/bars/foils/beads: Possible shapes, but the key is dissimilar wires in standard instrumentation; identical metals would not produce the needed EMF. Common Pitfalls: Confusing the protective sheath or ceramic insulators with the active thermoelectric elements; only the dissimilar metal conductors create the signal. Final Answer: Wires

Question 12

First-order plus dead time (FOPTD) system: a unity-gain process has time constant τ = 5 min. If the phase lag at excitation frequency ω = 0.2 rad/min is 60°, what is the dead time θ (minutes)?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Estimating the dead time of a first-order plus time delay (FOPTD) model from frequency-response data is a practical control task. Phase measurements from sine tests are particularly informative because dead time adds a linear-in-frequency phase lag to the system’s inherent lag. Given Data / Assumptions: Process model: G(jω) = exp(−jωθ) / (1 + jωτ), unity gain. Given τ = 5 min, ω = 0.2 rad/min. Measured phase lag |φ| = 60° = π/3 radians. Concept / Approach: For a FOPTD element, the phase lag is φ(ω) = −[arctan(ωτ) + ωθ]. The first term is the first-order lag; the second term arises from the dead time. Knowing φ and τ at a particular ω allows solving for θ directly. Step-by-Step Solution: Compute arctan(ωτ) with ωτ = 0.2 * 5 = 1 ⇒ arctan(1) = π/4.Write phase equation magnitude: π/3 = π/4 + ωθ ⇒ ωθ = π/3 − π/4 = (4π − 3π)/12 = π/12.Solve for θ: θ = (π/12)/ω = (π/12)/0.2 = (π/12) * 5 = 5π/12 minutes.Thus, θ = 5π/12 ≈ 1.309 minutes. Verification / Alternative check: Plug back into φ = −[arctan(1) + 0.2 * (5π/12)] = −[π/4 + π/12] = −π/3, which matches the measured −60° lag. Why Other Options Are Wrong: π/6 or π/12: These are intermediate angles, not the dead time in minutes; they arise before dividing by ω = 0.2.π/3: This is the total phase in radians, not θ.π/8: Does not satisfy the phase equation when substituted. Common Pitfalls: Forgetting to convert degrees to radians; failing to divide the residual phase by ω; or ignoring that the process time constant contributes arctan(ωτ) to the phase independently of dead time. Final Answer: 5π/12

Question 13

Second-order underdamped step response: identify the single correct statement about how key response features depend on the damping ratio ζ.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Second-order systems (mechanical mass–spring–damper, RLC circuits, many control loops) exhibit characteristic step responses governed by two parameters: natural frequency and damping ratio ζ. Understanding how overshoot, oscillation, and settling depend on ζ is essential for tuning and stability assessment. Given Data / Assumptions: Underdamped regime: 0 < ζ < 1. Standard unit-step input and canonical second-order form. Common definitions: overshoot, decay ratio, rise/settling times. Concept / Approach: As damping decreases (ζ becomes smaller), energy dissipates more slowly, leading to larger oscillations around the final value. Consequently, percent overshoot increases as ζ decreases. The damped oscillation frequency is wd = wn * sqrt(1 − ζ^2), which is lower than the undamped natural frequency wn. Decay ratio relates successive peak amplitudes and is not the reciprocal of percent overshoot. “Response time” is not a standard term for the first crossing; “rise time” and “settling time” are the accepted metrics. Step-by-Step Solution: Recall overshoot dependence: smaller ζ ⇒ larger overshoot.Note oscillatory nature for 0 < ζ < 1 (non-monotonic).Remember wd = wn * sqrt(1 − ζ^2) < wn.Evaluate each statement vs. these facts and select the one that aligns. Verification / Alternative check: Bode/Nyquist interpretations also show more resonant peaking as damping decreases, consistent with larger time-domain overshoot. Why Other Options Are Wrong: a: The standard term is “rise time” for first reach/cross; “response time” is ambiguous.c: Decay ratio is the ratio of successive peaks, not 1/(percent overshoot).d: Underdamped implies oscillations; monotonic approach occurs for ζ ≥ 1 (critically/overdamped).e: Damped frequency wd is less than wn unless ζ = 0. Common Pitfalls: Confusing rise time with settling time; assuming higher damping always improves speed (it reduces overshoot but may lengthen rise time). Using percent overshoot without specifying its definition relative to final value can also cause inconsistency. Final Answer: Percent overshoot increases as the damping coefficient (i.e., damping ratio ζ) decreases.

Question 14

In an exothermic chemical reactor under temperature control, which flow rate is most commonly selected as the manipulated variable to regulate reactor temperature while maintaining safe operation and stable conversion?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Exothermic chemical reactors generate heat as reactions proceed. Without proper temperature control, runaway or poor selectivity can occur. In industrial practice, the temperature control loop must manipulate an accessible variable that swiftly influences heat removal or addition while keeping the reactor stable and safe. Given Data / Assumptions: Reactor is exothermic and jacketed or coil-cooled. Goal is to control reactor temperature tightly around a set point. Manipulated variable should provide fast, direct effect on energy balance. Concept / Approach: For exothermic systems, removing excess heat is the primary need. Adjusting coolant flow rate (or coolant inlet temperature) directly changes the heat removal term in the energy balance: Q_removed = U * A * ΔT_effective. A higher coolant flow typically increases the heat transfer coefficient and reduces jacket outlet temperature, raising the driving force for heat removal. By contrast, manipulating reactant flow can affect both heat generation and residence time, coupling material and energy balances and often lagging in response. Product flow is even less direct for temperature control. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify energy leverage: jacket/coil heat removal is the fastest knob.Relate coolant flow to heat removal capacity: higher flow → greater U and lower coolant outlet T → more heat removed.Conclude that the coolant flow rate is the most practical manipulated variable. Verification / Alternative check: Typical P&IDs show reactor temperature controllers (TIC) sending output to a valve on the coolant line (manipulating coolant flow) or to a mixing station that sets coolant temperature. This confirms industry convention. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Reactants: affects generation and residence time; response is slower and more coupled.Product: little immediate leverage on reactor temperature.None: a manipulated variable is required; coolant is standard. Common Pitfalls: Overlooking coolant inlet temperature as an alternative MV; both coolant flow and inlet temperature are valid, but flow is most common. Final Answer: Coolant

Question 15

Offset in a first-order process controlled by proportional (P-only) control with gain Kc: what modification to the control strategy most effectively eliminates steady-state offset without relying on extreme gain values?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Proportional-only control of a load-disturbed process typically results in a steady-state error (offset) unless the process has integral action itself. Engineers often need to remove this bias so that the controlled variable exactly matches the set point at steady state. Given Data / Assumptions: Process is well approximated by a first-order lag with nonzero steady-state gain. Controller is initially proportional only with gain Kc. Load disturbances or set-point changes can occur. Concept / Approach: With P-only control, the control signal at steady state is finite and requires a nonzero error to sustain the actuator output that balances the load—this is offset. Adding integral action introduces a term proportional to the time integral of the error, which accumulates until the steady-state error is driven to zero (for a stable, reachable operating point). Derivative action shapes dynamics but does not change the steady-state error for step loads. Step-by-Step Solution: Recognize that P-only produces a nonzero steady-state error for step loads.Integral term integrates error over time; at steady state, error must be zero to prevent integrator windup.Conclude that adding integral control eliminates offset. Verification / Alternative check: Closed-loop steady-state analysis shows that with PI control, the error for a step input is zero if the loop is stable and actuator limits are not hit. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Reducing Kc: increases offset and slows response.Derivative control: affects transient response and noise sensitivity, not steady-state offset.None: incorrect because PI is the standard remedy. Common Pitfalls: Raising Kc excessively to reduce offset risks oscillation; integral action is the principled fix. Final Answer: Introducing integral (I) control

Question 16

Helium constant-volume gas thermometer: select the temperature range for which this primary standard instrument is suitable in practice, given helium’s stability at very high temperatures.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Gas thermometers are primary temperature standards because the equation of state of gases is well understood. Constant-volume types infer temperature from pressure changes at fixed volume. Helium is particularly useful due to chemical inertness and stability at high temperatures, making it suitable for elevated-temperature calibration work. Given Data / Assumptions: Working gas: helium (chemically inert, light, high thermal conductivity). Configuration: constant-volume gas thermometer (CVGT). Industrial/laboratory implementation with appropriate materials. Concept / Approach: With appropriate containment and materials, a helium CVGT can operate well above the ranges of liquid-in-glass or mercury thermometers, reaching very high temperatures for standards and calibration. While gas thermometers can also measure sub-zero temperatures, the question emphasizes suitability for “a temperature of … °C” and expects recognition of helium’s usability at very high temperatures, far beyond typical resistance thermometers’ upper limits. Step-by-Step Solution: Recall that helium is inert and remains gaseous at extreme temperatures at ambient pressures.Recognize that gas thermometers are used as standards into the high-temperature regime with proper construction.Select the range “> 800 °C” to reflect this capability. Verification / Alternative check: Reference practices in metrology employ noble-gas constant-volume thermometers for high-temperature points where other standard sensors face material limitations. Why Other Options Are Wrong: < 100 °C or < 0 °C: far below the distinctive advantage of helium CVGT.> 0 °C: true but trivial; does not capture the intended high-temperature suitability. Common Pitfalls: Confusing general gas thermometry (broad range) with the question’s intent to highlight helium’s high-temperature capability. Final Answer: > 800 °C

Question 17

Dilatometer application in measurement and materials testing: identify the physical quantity a dilatometer is designed to measure when a specimen experiences temperature changes during a controlled program.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Dilatometry quantifies dimensional change in a specimen as temperature varies. It is widely used to determine linear thermal expansion coefficients, softening points, transformation temperatures (e.g., glass transition), and sintering behavior of ceramics and metals. Given Data / Assumptions: Specimen is heated/cooled under a defined temperature program. Instrument measures length change with high resolution. Environmental effects (atmosphere, load) are controlled. Concept / Approach: A dilatometer records ΔL (change in length) as a function of temperature T and time t. From ΔL/L0 versus T, the linear thermal expansion coefficient α is computed as α = (1/L0) * dL/dT. The instrument is not intended to directly measure stress or general strain fields; instead it measures thermal expansion or contraction along a specimen axis. While “strain” could describe ΔL/L0 abstractly, the conventional wording for a dilatometer’s purpose emphasizes thermal expansion/contraction due to temperature changes. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the measurand: dimensional change with temperature.Relate the recorded ΔL to thermal expansion metrics such as α.Select the option explicitly naming contraction/expansion due to temperature changes. Verification / Alternative check: Instrument datasheets specify outputs as length change versus temperature, confirming the intended measurand. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Stress: requires load cells; not measured directly by a dilatometer.Strain (generic): too broad; the instrument specifically targets thermal expansion.Deflection: implies bending; dilatometry tracks axial length change. Common Pitfalls: Equating thermal strain with mechanical strain under load; dilatometry is usually performed under minimal or controlled load. Final Answer: Contraction/expansion due to changes in temperature

Question 18

Optical activity of a solution can be determined using a

Accepted Answer

polarimeter

Question 19

Well-mixed tank heating/cooling model (repaired): Water enters a perfectly mixed tank at flow rate Q0 and temperature T0 and leaves at flow rate Q with exit temperature T. Heat losses are negligible. The tank volume V is constant (level control main…

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Dynamic temperature modeling of a continuously stirred tank under negligible heat loss is foundational in process control. It provides the transfer function from inlet temperature disturbances to outlet temperature and underpins controller design for heat exchangers and storage tanks. Given Data / Assumptions: Tank is perfectly mixed; exit temperature equals tank temperature T(t). Inlet flow rate and temperature: Q0, T0; outlet flow rate: Q. Negligible heat loss; liquid properties constant; overall heat capacity per unit volume normalized to 1 for clarity (or absorbed into V). Liquid holdup (volume) V is constant (level control present so dV/dt = 0). Concept / Approach: The unsteady-state energy balance is: rate of energy accumulation = energy in − energy out. With constant density and heat capacity absorbed into units, this reduces to V * dT/dt = Q0 * T0 − Q * T. For many level-controlled cases Q0 = Q, which simplifies to V * dT/dt = Q0 (T0 − T). This is the canonical first-order model used to derive time constant τ = V/Q0. Step-by-Step Solution: Write balance: V * dT/dt = Q0 * T0 − Q * T.Assume level control (Q0 = Q) → V * dT/dt = Q0 (T0 − T).Rearrange to the listed form: Q0 (T0 − T) = V * dT/dt. Verification / Alternative check: Dimensional check: [Q0]*[T] has units of volume*temperature/time matching [V]*[dT/dt]. Solution form is first-order: dT/dt = (Q0/V) (T0 − T). Why Other Options Are Wrong: Q0 T0 − Q T = V * dT/dt: general form but the question asks for the simplified dynamic in standard disturbance form; with level control, the compact canonical form uses (T0 − T).Q (T0 − T) = V * dT/dt: uses outlet flow Q; under level control Q = Q0, but the conventional, simplified expression uses the inlet Q0.Q (T0 − T) = A0 * dT/dt: area A0 is not the holdup; the correct state parameter is volume V (or ρCpV if not normalized). Common Pitfalls: Forgetting to include holdup (V) or assuming V varies with time. If properties are not normalized, include ρ*Cp explicitly. Final Answer: Q0 (T0 - T) = V * dT/dt

Question 20

Which classical stability assessment explicitly uses the open-loop transfer function to determine closed-loop stability margins and encirclements?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Different classical methods assess closed-loop stability from various viewpoints: algebraic criteria on the characteristic polynomial, frequency-domain loci, and graphical encirclements. Recognizing what each method requires as input helps select the right tool for a given problem. Given Data / Assumptions: Loop structure is unity or known; open-loop transfer function L(s) is available. Plant and controller are linear time-invariant. Interest is in stability and gain/phase margins. Concept / Approach: The Nyquist method maps the frequency response of the open-loop transfer function L(jω) around the Nyquist contour and counts encirclements of the critical point (−1, 0). This directly relates open-loop frequency response to closed-loop stability and margins. In contrast, Routh–Hurwitz is an algebraic criterion based on the characteristic polynomial, and Mikhailov uses the frequency response of that polynomial itself, not the open-loop L(jω) per se. Step-by-Step Solution: Compute L(jω) for ω from 0 to ∞ and reflect negative frequencies.Plot Nyquist locus and check encirclements of −1.Infer stability and margins from the open-loop plot. Verification / Alternative check: Bode plots (also based on L(jω)) can provide margins; Nyquist provides a full stability mapping including non-minimum-phase peculiarities. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Mikhailov: uses characteristic polynomial vector locus.Routh: tests signs of Routh array from polynomial coefficients.None: incorrect because Nyquist is correct. Common Pitfalls: Confusing “open-loop response” (Nyquist/Bode) with “closed-loop” plots; Nyquist uses open-loop to infer closed-loop stability. Final Answer: Nyquist

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