Question 1

Two’s-complement subtraction – does a sign bit of 1 in the difference mean the magnitude is negative and already in true (uncomplemented) binary?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: In two’s-complement arithmetic, the MSB (sign bit) indicates the sign of a signed result. However, interpretation of the magnitude differs for negative numbers: their bit pattern is not in ordinary (true) binary; it is in two’s-complement form and must be converted to find the positive magnitude. Given Data / Assumptions: Two’s-complement representation. Subtraction implemented by adding the two’s complement of the subtrahend. We examine the sign and magnitude of the final difference. Concept / Approach: If the sign bit is 1, the value is negative. The magnitude is not directly in true binary; to get the absolute value, take the two’s complement again (invert bits and add 1). Therefore, saying “negative and in true binary form” is inaccurate; it is negative, but the magnitude is encoded in two’s complement, not plain binary. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Compute difference D in two’s complement.2) If MSB(D) = 1 → D is negative.3) To obtain |D|, compute two’s complement of D (invert + 1).4) Conclusion: sign bit 1 implies negativity, but magnitude is not in true binary until reconverted. Verification / Alternative check: Example (8-bit): 3 – 5 = 3 + (two’s complement of 5 = 11111011) = 11111110. MSB=1 → negative. Magnitude: two’s complement of 11111110 is 00000010 = 2. The stored pattern is not true binary 2 until reconverted. Why Other Options Are Wrong: End-around carry, saturation, or word-length parity do not change the core rule about two’s-complement magnitude extraction. Common Pitfalls: Confusing sign indication with magnitude encoding; assuming negative numbers are stored as sign + true magnitude, which is sign-magnitude, not two’s complement. Final Answer: Incorrect

Question 2

Number-system basics – is hexadecimal a base-4 system?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Digital systems commonly use binary (base 2), octal (base 8), decimal (base 10), and hexadecimal (base 16). This question checks if you can recall the correct radix for hex and avoid conflating it with smaller bases like base 4 (quaternary). Given Data / Assumptions: Hexadecimal digits: 0–9 and A–F. Each hex digit corresponds to 4 binary bits (a nibble). No exotic numbering schemes implied. Concept / Approach: Hexadecimal is base 16; each position represents powers of 16. While it maps neatly to binary in 4-bit groups (1 nibble), that convenience does not change the radix. Base 4 would use only digits 0–3 and powers of 4, which is not how hex is defined or used. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Recall: hex symbols 0–9, A(10), B(11), C(12), D(13), E(14), F(15).2) Place value in hex: ... * 16^2, * 16^1, * 16^0.3) Relationship to binary: 1 hex digit ↔ 4 bits (e.g., F = 1111).4) Therefore, hex is base 16, not base 4. Verification / Alternative check: Convert 0x10 to decimal: 1 * 16 + 0 = 16. If it were base 4, 10_4 equals 4 decimal, which contradicts common usage like memory addresses and hex literals. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Correct” is false. BCD and pairing/grouping practices do not alter radix. Nibble size is fixed at 4 bits because hex is base 16, not the reverse. Common Pitfalls: Confusing the 4-bit nibble association with base 4. The nibble-to-hex mapping is about encoding convenience, not radix identity. Final Answer: Incorrect

Question 3

Adder fundamentals – is the XOR gate the logic element used to produce the arithmetic sum bit?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Binary addition is realized in hardware by half adders and full adders. The sum output bit reflects whether an odd number of inputs are 1. The XOR gate exactly captures this “odd parity” behavior, making it central to adder sum generation. Given Data / Assumptions: Two-input half adder: inputs A, B; outputs Sum, Carry. Full adder adds A, B, and Cin to produce Sum and Cout. Ideal Boolean logic behavior assumed. Concept / Approach: For a half adder, Sum = A XOR B. For a full adder, Sum = A XOR B XOR Cin. In both cases, XOR chains implement the sum bit because XOR is 1 when an odd count of inputs are 1. Carries are produced with AND/OR combinations, but the sum computation is XOR-centric. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Half adder: Sum = A ⊕ B; Carry = A * B.2) Full adder: Sum = (A ⊕ B) ⊕ Cin; Cout = (A * B) + (Cin * (A ⊕ B)).3) Therefore, XOR realizes the sum bit in both half and full adders.4) Conclusion: the statement is correct. Verification / Alternative check: Truth tables confirm odd-parity behavior: exactly one or three 1s among inputs produce Sum = 1. Implementation diagrams in textbooks show a cascading XOR for Sum. Why Other Options Are Wrong: XOR is used in both half and full adders; equality of inputs is not a requirement; carry look-ahead is an optimization for carry, not Sum logic. Common Pitfalls: Mixing up Sum and Carry roles; assuming AND/OR produce Sum. In reality, AND/OR form the carry network, while XOR forms Sum. Final Answer: Correct

Question 4

Binary subtraction check – is 1011 (base 2) minus 0111 (base 2) equal to 1000 (base 2)?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: This problem verifies binary subtraction accuracy. As with decimal, you may subtract bit-by-bit with borrows or convert to two’s-complement addition for a systematic approach. We compare the given claim to the computed result. Given Data / Assumptions: Operands: 1011 (11 decimal) and 0111 (7 decimal). Unsigned comparison; no modular wrap unless explicitly specified. Goal: test if the difference equals 1000. Concept / Approach: Compute 11 − 7 = 4 (decimal). The correct binary for 4 is 0100 (or simply 100). The proposed 1000 equals 8 (decimal), which is not the correct difference. Therefore, the statement is false. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Decimal sanity: 11 − 7 = 4.2) Binary: 1011 − 0111. Subtract bitwise with borrows: result 0100.3) Compare with claim: 1000 (8 decimal) ≠ 0100 (4 decimal).4) Conclusion: the equality is incorrect. Verification / Alternative check: Two’s complement: 1011 + (two’s complement of 0111 = 1001) = 10100. Discard carry beyond 4 bits → 0100, matching the direct subtraction result, so 4 is confirmed. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Borrow inhibition or signed mode does not make 11 − 7 equal 8. Modulo wrap would require a specified fixed width and still would not yield 1000 as the canonical result here. Common Pitfalls: Mixing up borrow steps or misaligning bits. Always line up bits and track borrows carefully. Final Answer: Incorrect

Question 5

Two’s-complement interpretation – does the 8-bit pattern 10011100 represent −100 in decimal?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Two’s-complement representation encodes negative values by inverting bits of the magnitude and adding 1. Recognizing a negative 8-bit pattern and recovering its decimal value is a core skill in digital arithmetic and systems programming. Given Data / Assumptions: 8-bit value: 10011100. Two’s-complement encoding assumed. We must determine its decimal value. Concept / Approach: For an 8-bit number with MSB 1, the value is negative. To find the magnitude, take two’s complement: invert all bits then add 1. The resulting magnitude is interpreted in ordinary binary and the sign is negative. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Given: 10011100. MSB=1 → negative.2) Invert bits: 01100011.3) Add 1: 01100011 + 1 = 01100100.4) 01100100 (binary) = 64 + 32 + 4 = 100 (decimal). Therefore original value = −100. Verification / Alternative check: Add the number to its magnitude in two’s complement: 10011100 + 01100100 = 1 00000000 (ignoring the final carry) which is a property confirming correct inversion and addition pairing. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Ignoring the MSB or using sign-magnitude rules would misinterpret the encoding. Overflow flags are unrelated to static value interpretation. Common Pitfalls: Forgetting to add 1 after inversion, or miscounting bit weights when converting back to decimal. Final Answer: Correct

Question 6

Division algorithms – do binary division and decimal long division follow the same fundamental procedure?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Long division teaches a sequence of trial, multiply, subtract, and bring-down steps. In binary arithmetic, division uses the same conceptual loop with digits restricted to 0/1, making trial selection simpler. This question tests whether you recognize the shared structure across radices. Given Data / Assumptions: Unsigned integers for clarity. Manual long division analogy; hardware may use restoring/non-restoring variants. Base (radix) affects digit choices, not the core loop. Concept / Approach: Both decimal and binary division iterate: compare partial remainder with divisor, place a quotient digit (1 or 0 in binary), multiply divisor by that digit, subtract, and shift/bring down the next digit. Binary simplifies digit choice to a yes/no (fit/no fit), but the algorithmic skeleton is the same. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Initialize partial remainder from the highest-order bits/digits.2) Decide quotient digit (binary: 1 if divisor fits, else 0).3) Multiply divisor by chosen digit and subtract from partial remainder.4) Bring down/shift next bit and repeat until all bits are processed. Verification / Alternative check: Hardware division (restoring or non-restoring) mirrors these steps with shift-subtract cycles. Software long division loops implement the same logic with bit tests and subtractions. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Restricting to powers of two or no remainder is unnecessary. Restoring vs non-restoring are implementation details; both follow the same overarching pattern. Common Pitfalls: Confusing digit set differences (0–9 vs 0–1) with a different algorithm. The control flow remains the same. Final Answer: Correct

Question 7

Adder selection – should a half adder be used whenever a carry input is required in an adder stage?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Adders come in two basic building blocks: half adders and full adders. A half adder has no carry input; a full adder accepts a carry in (Cin). The choice depends on whether a stage must add two bits only or two bits plus an incoming carry. Given Data / Assumptions: Binary addition across multiple bit positions. LSB stage has no incoming carry; higher stages typically do. Goal: determine which block to use when Cin is required. Concept / Approach: A half adder computes Sum = A XOR B and Carry = A * B. A full adder computes Sum = A XOR B XOR Cin and Cout = (A * B) + (Cin * (A XOR B)). Therefore, whenever a carry input is required, a full adder—not a half adder—must be used. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Identify stage type: if Cin exists, half adder is insufficient.2) Replace with full adder to include the Cin term in Sum and Cout.3) Chain full adders across all but the least significant stage in ripple-carry designs.4) Conclusion: the claim is incorrect; use full adders when a carry input is required. Verification / Alternative check: Standard ripple-carry adders: LSB stage can be a half adder; all higher stages are full adders to accept carry propagation. Why Other Options Are Wrong: It is not limited to LSB, ripple mode, or delay issues; the functional requirement (Cin) dictates using a full adder. Common Pitfalls: Trying to feed an external carry into a half adder by ad hoc wiring; this breaks the defined logic equations. Final Answer: Incorrect

Question 8

Full-adder notation – are the inputs conventionally labeled A1, B1, and Cin?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Naming conventions in schematics vary, but there are widely used standards. A full adder takes three inputs (two operand bits and a carry-in) and produces Sum and Cout. The canonical labels are A, B, and Cin (or X, Y, Cin). This question checks whether A1 and B1 are the standard required labels. Given Data / Assumptions: Standard full-adder block. Common schematic conventions from textbooks and datasheets. Subscripts sometimes denote bit positions (e.g., A0, A1), but are not mandatory labels. Concept / Approach: The conventional notation is A, B, and Cin. Using A1 and B1 might indicate the bit-1 position in a multi-bit word (e.g., A1, B1, Cin1), but that is a positional index, not the standard naming requirement. Therefore, stating that the inputs are labeled A1, B1, and Cin as a rule is inaccurate. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Identify common labels: A, B, Cin.2) Recognize optional indexing: Ai, Bi refer to bit i, not fixed “A1, B1.”3) Conclude that A1, B1 are not the conventional mandatory labels for the generic full adder.4) Hence the statement is incorrect. Verification / Alternative check: Textbook and HDL descriptions (e.g., Verilog) typically declare modules with ports (A, B, Cin) and index vectors for bit positions, confirming the norm. Why Other Options Are Wrong: BCD or carry-save architectures do not change generic labeling practice; indices remain contextual rather than prescriptive. Common Pitfalls: Confusing a specific schematic’s indices with universal naming. Always separate functional role names from bit-position subscripts. Final Answer: Incorrect

Question 9

Two’s-complement subtraction rule – do we subtract by taking the subtrahend’s two’s complement and adding it to the minuend?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Digital systems implement subtraction efficiently by reusing addition hardware. Two’s-complement arithmetic enables this by converting subtraction into addition of the negated subtrahend. Recognizing this rule is fundamental for ALU design and low-level programming. Given Data / Assumptions: Two’s-complement representation for signed integers. Fixed word width (e.g., 8, 16, 32 bits). Potential for overflow is handled by flags, but does not change the rule. Concept / Approach: To compute A − B, form two’s complement of B (invert bits of B, then add 1) and add to A: A + (two’s complement of B). This lets a single adder perform both addition and subtraction, with control logic selecting whether to invert B and preset the carry-in. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Goal: compute A − B.2) Negate B in two’s complement: B' = NOT(B) + 1.3) Add: Sum = A + B' using the same binary adder.4) Interpret flags (carry/overflow) as needed for signed/unsigned contexts. Verification / Alternative check: Example: 7 − 5 in 4 bits. A=0111, B=0101. Two’s complement of B: 1011. Add: 0111 + 1011 = 1 0010; drop carry → 0010 (2). Matches the expected result. Why Other Options Are Wrong: The rule is not limited by operand signs or the presence/absence of overflow; those affect interpretation, not the mechanism. Common Pitfalls: Forgetting the +1 after inversion, or misreading signed vs unsigned overflow behavior when interpreting flags. Final Answer: Correct

Question 10

In digital arithmetic, binary multiplication follows the same positional, shift-and-add idea used in decimal multiplication; however, the digits are limited to 1s and 0s and partial products are therefore either the multiplicand (for a 1) or 0 (for …

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Binary multiplication is the cornerstone of digital arithmetic units such as multipliers and ALUs. Understanding how it mirrors decimal long multiplication, but with base-2 digits, helps in designing efficient hardware (array, Wallace tree) and software routines (shift-and-add algorithms). Given Data / Assumptions: Binary digits are limited to 0 and 1. Positional value in base 2 follows powers of 2 (… 2^3, 2^2, 2^1, 2^0). Partial products are formed by gating the multiplicand with each multiplier bit and shifting by the bit position. Concept / Approach: Decimal long multiplication forms partial products by multiplying by each digit and shifting according to place value, then summing. Binary uses the same idea: for multiplier bit bi, the partial product is (bi * multiplicand) shifted left i places. Since bi is either 0 or 1, each partial product is either all zeros or an exact shifted copy of the multiplicand, simplifying hardware. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Write multiplicand and multiplier in binary.2) For each multiplier bit bi, compute partial product = (bi AND multiplicand) << i.3) Sum all partial products using binary adders.4) The process is structurally identical to decimal long multiplication except the digit set is {0,1}. Verification / Alternative check: Try a small example, e.g., 1011 (11) * 0110 (6). Partial products are either 0 or 1011 shifted appropriately; their sum equals 1000010 (66), which matches 11*6. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Incorrect” contradicts the structural similarity. “Only repeated addition without shifting” ignores the standard long-multiplication implementation. “Requires decimal carries and base-10 correction” is irrelevant to base-2 arithmetic. Common Pitfalls: Confusing binary adders with decimal carry-corrected adders; forgetting to align partial products by bit position; mismanaging sign handling for signed numbers (handled via two’s complement or Booth encoding). Final Answer: Correct

Question 11

In synchronous digital systems, the sum and carry results produced by a full adder stage are typically captured or stored in registers (flip-flops) for sequencing and pipelining. Evaluate this statement.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: A full adder is a combinational block that forms the basis of ripple-carry, carry-lookahead, and more advanced adders. In practical CPUs, DSPs, and controllers, adder outputs are often registered to align with clocked pipelines, stabilize timing, and enable multi-cycle arithmetic sequences. Given Data / Assumptions: Full adder computes sum and carry from A, B, and carry-in. Designs are typically synchronous, clocked by a global or local clock. Registers (flip-flops) are available to store intermediate or final results. Concept / Approach: The adder itself is combinational, but systems that use adders frequently capture outputs into registers for timing closure, pipelining, or state progression. This separates combinational delay from subsequent logic and allows higher clock frequencies by introducing pipeline stages. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Full adder produces SUM and COUT given A, B, CIN.2) In a synchronous pipeline, SUM/COUT feed D inputs of flip-flops.3) On the active clock edge, registers store these outputs, stabilizing them for the next stage.4) Registered boundaries enable predictable timing and throughput improvements. Verification / Alternative check: Examine typical ALU or multiplier-accumulator diagrams; outputs after arithmetic stages are commonly registered at pipeline boundaries. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Incorrect” ignores standard synchronous practice. “Stored only in ROM” is unrelated—ROM is not used to store dynamic arithmetic results. “Must never be clocked” misinterprets that while adders are combinational, their outputs are routinely clocked in systems. Common Pitfalls: Assuming combinational blocks never interface with sequential elements; overlooking the difference between pure logic function and system-level timing strategy. Final Answer: Correct

Question 12

Evaluate the claim for eight-bit two’s-complement representation: “The representation of −110 (decimal) in 8-bit two’s complement is 11110111.” Is this statement valid?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Two’s-complement is the dominant representation for signed integers in digital systems. Verifying a negative encoding requires converting the positive magnitude to binary, inverting bits, and adding 1, then checking the result. Given Data / Assumptions: We need the 8-bit two’s-complement encoding of −110 (decimal). Range of 8-bit two’s complement is −128 to +127. Binary conversion and two’s-complement steps are applied precisely. Concept / Approach: Find +110 in 8 bits, invert all bits, then add 1. If the final pattern matches the claim (11110111), the statement is correct; otherwise it is incorrect. Also, interpret 11110111 to see what decimal value it represents to cross-check. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) +110 in 8-bit binary: 110 = 64 + 32 + 8 + 4 + 2 → 01101110.2) Invert bits: 10010001.3) Add 1: 10010001 + 1 = 10010010.4) Therefore, −110 encodes as 10010010, not 11110111.5) Interpret 11110111: as two’s complement, value = −(~11110111 + 1) = −(00001000 + 1) = −9. Verification / Alternative check: Compute 256 − 110 = 146; 146 in hex is 0x92 which is 10010010, matching the step-by-step conversion. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Correct” contradicts the computed code. The options about one’s-complement or sign-magnitude are red herrings; the question explicitly concerns two’s complement. Common Pitfalls: Mistaking bit order; forgetting to add 1 after inversion; mixing up representations like one’s complement or sign-magnitude with two’s complement. Final Answer: Incorrect

Question 13

Two’s-complement arithmetic is the standard method used by general-purpose computer systems and processors to perform signed integer addition and subtraction. Evaluate this statement.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Two’s-complement encoding enables the same adder circuitry to handle both positive and negative integers, simplifying hardware and enabling efficient arithmetic. It is pervasive across ISAs and microarchitectures. Given Data / Assumptions: We discuss signed integer arithmetic on typical CPUs and controllers. Objective is to represent negative values and perform addition/subtraction efficiently. Overflow detection follows two’s-complement rules. Concept / Approach: Two’s complement represents −x as (~x) + 1. Using this scheme, subtraction A − B becomes A + (~B + 1), so a single binary adder suffices for addition and subtraction. Sign bit participates naturally in the addition, avoiding special sign handling required by sign-magnitude or one’s-complement schemes. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Encode negatives by inversion plus 1.2) Perform A − B as A + (two’s-complement of B).3) Use overflow rules: for addition, overflow occurs when adding two numbers with the same sign produces a result with the opposite sign.4) Hardware uses the same adder for both operations, minimizing complexity. Verification / Alternative check: Survey architectures (x86, ARM, RISC-V, MIPS); all use two’s complement for signed integers. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Incorrect” contradicts standard practice. “Only for floating-point” is wrong—floating point uses IEEE-754, not two’s complement. “Replaced by sign-magnitude” is historically reversed. Common Pitfalls: Confusing encoding for integers with floating-point formats; misapplying overflow rules across representations. Final Answer: Correct

Question 14

An Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) is a multipurpose block capable of performing several logic and arithmetic operations, often selectable via control lines (opcodes). Evaluate this statement.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: The ALU is central to processors and microcontrollers. It provides addition, subtraction, comparisons, bitwise logic, shifts/rotates, and sometimes multiplication support, controlled by instruction decode lines or micro-ops. Given Data / Assumptions: ALU takes operand inputs and control signals. Outputs include result and flags (carry, zero, negative, overflow). Target systems are general-purpose CPUs or embedded cores. Concept / Approach: By multiplexing internal function units (adder, logic unit, shifter), the ALU executes a range of arithmetic and logical operations. Control signals select the active function; results are typically registered and written back to architectural or microarchitectural registers. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Present operands A and B to ALU inputs.2) Control lines select operation: add, subtract, AND, OR, XOR, compare, shift, etc.3) ALU combines sub-block outputs and asserts flags.4) Result is forwarded to the register file or next pipeline stage. Verification / Alternative check: Block diagrams of classic and modern CPUs show multi-operation ALUs; instruction set manuals enumerate operations supported. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Incorrect” is contrary to ALU definition. Claims that ALUs perform “only addition” or “only logic” ignore their combined arithmetic and logic capabilities. Common Pitfalls: Assuming ALU equals only adder; overlooking status flags and shift/rotate support common in ALU clusters. Final Answer: Correct

Question 15

To obtain greater operand widths in practice, small adders (for example, 2-bit adders) can be paralleled or cascaded to build wider adders (such as 4-bit, 8-bit, or 16-bit). Evaluate this statement.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Digital designers routinely scale arithmetic width by composing small building blocks. Ripple-carry, carry-lookahead, and other schemes all rely on tiling smaller adder slices into larger structures. Given Data / Assumptions: Each 2-bit adder provides SUM[1:0] and a carry-out. Blocks can be connected with carry chaining. Goal is to implement larger word sizes. Concept / Approach: Connect the carry-out of a less significant slice to the carry-in of the next slice. This cascading produces a ripple-carry adder. For improved speed, carry-lookahead or carry-select techniques compute carries faster, but the modular composition principle remains the same. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Partition the N-bit addition into groups of 2 bits.2) Instantiate 2-bit adders for each group.3) Chain carry-out of group i to carry-in of group i+1.4) Collect all sum outputs to form the N-bit result. Verification / Alternative check: Standard texts show 1-bit full adders cascaded into 4/8/16-bit adders; using 2-bit slices is a straightforward variation. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Incorrect” denies common practice. “Only for subtractors” is false—subtraction is addition of two’s-complement. “Carries forced to 0” would break correctness beyond the least-significant slice. Common Pitfalls: Ignoring carry propagation delay; not considering acceleration techniques for high-speed designs. Final Answer: Correct

Question 16

In programmable logic and design libraries, a macrofunction refers to a self-contained description of a logic circuit with its inputs, outputs, and operational characteristics defined for reuse. Evaluate this statement.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Design reuse in CPLDs, FPGAs, and ASIC flows is enabled by packaging common logic as parameterized, documented blocks—often called macrofunctions, macros, or IP cores—so they can be instantiated repeatedly across projects. Given Data / Assumptions: Macrofunction encapsulates logic behavior and interface. Inputs/outputs (and sometimes generics/parameters) are defined. Target media include vendor libraries and user IP repositories. Concept / Approach: A macrofunction packages a tested logic function with a stable interface, enabling consistent instantiation and easing verification. It may be delivered as HDL source, netlist, or encrypted IP, but the essence is the same: self-contained functionality with defined I/O and behavior that can be reused. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Identify a common logic need (e.g., debouncer, encoder, adder).2) Implement and verify the block once with a clear interface.3) Package as a macrofunction for repeated instantiation.4) Integrate into different designs without re-implementing the internals. Verification / Alternative check: Vendor toolchains (e.g., Intel/Altera, Xilinx) provide macro libraries and IP catalogs reflecting this concept. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Incorrect” ignores industry practice. Limiting it to analog macromodels or to a single HDL is unnecessary; macrofunctions exist across HDLs and abstraction forms. Common Pitfalls: Confusing macrofunctions with simple textual macros; overlooking parameterization and timing/resource constraints. Final Answer: Correct

Question 17

A full adder differs from a half adder in that it accepts a carry-in (C_in) in addition to the two operand bits, enabling multi-bit ripple addition. Evaluate this statement.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Adders are fundamental to digital systems. The distinction between half adder and full adder explains how wide adders are constructed from bit-slices and why carry chaining is possible. Given Data / Assumptions: Half adder: inputs A, B → outputs SUM, C_out; no C_in. Full adder: inputs A, B, C_in → outputs SUM, C_out. Goal: enable multi-bit addition by propagating carry. Concept / Approach: Because a full adder accepts a carry-in, it can be cascaded so that each bit position accounts for carry from the previous less significant bit. This is essential for correct multi-bit arithmetic and underlies ripple-carry and faster adder architectures. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) For LSB, set C_in = 0 (or external carry-in).2) Compute SUM and C_out at each bit with a full adder.3) Feed C_out(i) to C_in(i+1) to chain the bits.4) Obtain an N-bit sum with proper carry propagation. Verification / Alternative check: Truth tables and standard FA implementations show explicit C_in handling; half adders lack this input. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Incorrect” denies the defining property. “Only half adders have carry-in” is backwards. “Full adders output only carry” omits the SUM output which is essential. Common Pitfalls: Confusing half and full adder roles; not initializing the least significant carry-in properly. Final Answer: Correct

Question 18

In BCD (Binary-Coded Decimal) arithmetic, operations are performed on base-10 digit representations (0000–1001 for 0–9) with decimal correction when needed. Evaluate this statement.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: BCD is used when exact decimal digit handling matters, such as financial computations or display drivers. Each decimal digit is encoded separately into a 4-bit nibble, enabling precise decimal operations and easy conversion to human-readable form. Given Data / Assumptions: Valid BCD digit codes: 0000–1001 (0–9). Invalid patterns 1010–1111 may appear transiently and require correction. Addition may require adding 0110 (6) to compensate when a nibble exceeds 9 or a carry occurs. Concept / Approach: BCD arithmetic proceeds digit-by-digit. After binary addition of two BCD digits plus carry-in, if the partial nibble result is > 1001 or a carry is generated, add 0110 to that nibble and propagate the carry to the next decade, ensuring decimal correctness. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Add lower BCD nibbles with binary adder.2) If result > 9 or carry = 1, add 6 (0110) to correct.3) Propagate carry to the next higher BCD digit.4) Repeat for all digits to complete decimal-correct addition. Verification / Alternative check: Example: 9 (1001) + 7 (0111) = 10000 (16). Lower nibble 0000 with carry; add 0110 to correct yields proper BCD result of 16 across two digits. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Incorrect” contradicts BCD practice. “Pure base-2” ignores decimal correction. “All 4-bit patterns valid” is false—1010–1111 are invalid BCD digits. Common Pitfalls: Forgetting to add 6 on overflow; assuming binary sum alone suffices for decimal presentation. Final Answer: Correct

Question 19

Check the subtraction: In 8-bit binary, compute 00110110 (54) − 00011111 (31). Is the stated result 00011000 (24) correct?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Binary subtraction is performed either directly with borrows or by adding the two’s-complement of the subtrahend. Verifying a proposed result is a good exercise in basic arithmetic correctness and borrow handling. Given Data / Assumptions: Minuend: 00110110 (decimal 54). Subtrahend: 00011111 (decimal 31). Proposed difference: 00011000 (decimal 24). Concept / Approach: Compute 54 − 31 in decimal to sanity-check, then confirm at the bit level. If the decimal result is 23, the proposed 24 is incorrect. Using two’s complement also provides a reliable validation path. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Decimal check: 54 − 31 = 23 → expected binary 00010111.2) Two’s complement method: form two’s complement of 00011111.3) Invert 00011111 → 11100000; add 1 → 11100001.4) Add to minuend: 00110110 + 11100001 = 00010111 (discard carry out).5) Result 00010111 equals 23, not 24. Verification / Alternative check: Perform direct borrow subtraction bit-by-bit to reach the same 00010111 outcome, confirming the two’s-complement method. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Correct” contradicts both decimal and binary verification. Options about special borrow logic or BCD are irrelevant; the operands are plain binary. Common Pitfalls: Borrow mistakes across multiple bits; forgetting to discard the final carry when adding two’s complement in fixed width. Final Answer: Incorrect

Question 20

Two’s Complement — Verify whether the 8-bit pattern 11101000₂ correctly represents the decimal value −24 in two’s-complement form.

Accepted Answer

Introduction: This question checks your understanding of two’s-complement encoding for negative integers in 8-bit binary. The core idea is that a negative value −N is represented by taking the binary of +N, inverting all bits, and then adding 1. We will test whether 11101000₂ indeed corresponds to −24 in two’s-complement representation. Given Data / Assumptions: Word size = 8 bits. Target decimal value to verify: −24. Encoding scheme: two’s-complement. Binary arithmetic uses base-2 with carry/borrow as usual. Concept / Approach: To verify, convert the given code to its magnitude: for a negative two’s-complement number, compute the two’s complement again (invert and add 1) to get the absolute value. If the magnitude comes out 24 (00011000₂), then the original code is −24. Alternatively, forward-encode +24 to −24 and compare with the given pattern. Step-by-Step Solution: Step 1: Start from 11101000₂. Since MSB = 1, it represents a negative number.Step 2: Invert bits: 11101000 → 00010111.Step 3: Add 1: 00010111 + 1 = 00011000₂.Step 4: 00011000₂ = 16 + 8 = 24. Therefore the original pattern encodes −24. Verification / Alternative check: Encode −24 directly: +24 = 00011000₂ → invert 11100111 → add 1 = 11101000₂, which matches the given pattern exactly. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Incorrect: Contradicted by the direct conversion showing magnitude 24 after inversion and +1.Ambiguous without sign bit: In two’s complement, MSB provides the sign; ambiguity does not exist for fixed 8 bits.Depends on one’s complement: We are not using one’s complement; two’s complement adds 1 after inversion. Common Pitfalls: Forgetting to add 1 after inversion (that would be one’s complement, not two’s complement).Dropping the fixed 8-bit width and performing variable-length inversion. Final Answer: Correct

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