Question 1

Smart modems: a smart modem can automatically dial, hang up, and answer incoming calls. Which component typically issues the commands that instruct the modem to perform these actions?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Smart modems implement command sets (famously the AT command set) so that a host can control dialing, answering, and hanging up. Understanding who sends those commands clarifies the division of responsibility between hardware and software in dial-up or serial-based communications. Given Data / Assumptions: The modem supports a command interface (e.g., ATD for dial, ATA for answer, ATH for hang up). The host has an application capable of issuing these commands via a serial or virtual COM port. Protocols and procedures operate after link establishment; they do not originate dial commands by themselves. Concept / Approach: Communications software (terminal programs, dialers, remote access clients) sends human-initiated or automated commands to the modem. Error-detecting protocols (like V.42) and link procedures (like LAP) manage framing/reliability post-connect; they do not direct the modem to start or end calls. “Telecommunications” is a broad field, not a controlling component. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the entity interacting with the modem’s command set.Recognize that applications/dialer software transmit AT-style commands.Select “Communications software.” Verification / Alternative check: Classic tools (HyperTerminal, minicom, PPP dialers) demonstrate programmatic dialing and hangup through command sequences scripted by the software. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Error detecting protocols: operate after call setup.LAP: link procedures for framing; not the dialing initiator.Telecommunications: a domain, not a command source.None of the above: incorrect because communications software is correct. Common Pitfalls: Assuming the modem autonomously decides when to dial; in practice, the host application triggers these actions. Final Answer: Communications software.

Question 2

Duplex modes: which communication mode supports two-way traffic, but only one direction can transmit at a time (i.e., turn-taking rather than simultaneous transmission)?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Duplex terminology describes whether endpoints can send and receive simultaneously. Choosing the correct mode is essential when designing serial links, radios, and shared media systems. The question asks for the mode that permits bidirectional communication, but not at the same instant—transmissions must alternate direction. Given Data / Assumptions: Two endpoints need two-way communication. Only one direction can be active at any instant. We are naming the mode, not a specific protocol. Concept / Approach: Half-duplex allows both endpoints to transmit and receive, but not simultaneously. Classic examples include push-to-talk radios and older Ethernet hubs during collision recovery. Simplex allows one-way only (e.g., broadcast TV). Full-duplex allows simultaneous two-way transmission (e.g., modern switched Ethernet). “Three-quarters duplex” is not standard terminology. Step-by-Step Solution: Match “two-way but not simultaneous” to half-duplex.Exclude simplex (one-way) and full-duplex (simultaneous two-way).Ignore nonstandard terms; select half-duplex. Verification / Alternative check: RS-485 multidrop and many radio systems demonstrate half-duplex behavior: devices take turns transmitting while all others listen. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Simplex: cannot send both ways.Three-quarters duplex: not a defined mode.Full-duplex: simultaneous send/receive, not turn-taking.None of the above: incorrect because half-duplex fits exactly. Common Pitfalls: Confusing hardware capability with configured link behavior; some links can operate either half- or full-duplex. Final Answer: Half-duplex.

Question 3

X.121 addressing (NUA): in a full 14-digit Network User Address, which digit positions constitute the terminal (national) number portion, excluding the DNIC and the optional user sub-address?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: X.25 public data networks used the ITU-T X.121 numbering plan. An X.121 Network User Address (NUA) commonly has up to 14 digits: the first four digits are the Data Network Identification Code (DNIC), the next block is the national (terminal) number, and, in many implementations, the last two digits can serve as a user-level sub-address. Understanding which positions represent the terminal number is a frequent standards question. Given Data / Assumptions: We consider a 14-digit NUA. Digits 1–4 are the DNIC (country/network identifier). Digits 13–14 are often treated as user sub-address digits. The terminal number occupies the remaining middle digits. Concept / Approach: With 14 digits total, and DNIC = 1–4 and sub-address = 13–14, the national terminal number spans digits 5 through 12 (eight digits). These identify the subscriber endpoint within the national network numbering plan. Step-by-Step Solution: Mark DNIC: positions 1–4 → not terminal number.Mark optional sub-address: positions 13–14 → not terminal number.The remaining positions are 5–12 → terminal (national) number. Verification / Alternative check: Historical NUA formats and operator documentation describe DNIC (4 digits) followed by national number (typically 8 digits) and sometimes user sub-address, matching positions 5–12 for the terminal number. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 1–4: DNIC portion, not the terminal number.13–14: user sub-address positions.7–10 and 9–14: partial/misaligned ranges that do not reflect the standard structure. Common Pitfalls: Forgetting that the total is 14 digits and that the last two are often reserved for sub-addressing; mixing national number length with country-specific variations—here we use the common 14-digit model. Final Answer: 5-12.

Question 4

Modulation families: ASK, PSK, FSK, and QAM are examples of which encoding category where digital data modulates an analog carrier?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: To send binary information over band-limited analog channels (like radio or passband links), we modulate a sinusoidal carrier. The family names ASK, PSK, FSK, and QAM refer to how the carrier’s properties are altered in response to digital symbols. Identifying the correct encoding class reinforces the separation between line coding and passband modulation. Given Data / Assumptions: ASK = Amplitude Shift Keying; PSK = Phase Shift Keying; FSK = Frequency Shift Keying; QAM = Quadrature Amplitude Modulation. Input: digital information (bits/symbols). Output: an analog passband waveform suitable for channels that carry sine-like signals. Concept / Approach: In digital-to-analog encoding, a digital symbol stream changes analog carrier parameters (amplitude, frequency, phase, or combinations). That distinguishes it from digital-to-digital line codes (e.g., NRZ, Manchester), analog-to-analog modulation (AM/FM for analog sources), and analog-to-digital conversion (sampling/quantization like PCM). Thus ASK/PSK/FSK/QAM are clearly digital-to-analog methods. Step-by-Step Solution: Recognize that “shift keying” names digital modulation of an analog carrier.Note that QAM combines amplitude and phase changes to encode multiple bits per symbol.Select “digital-to-analog” as the encoding category. Verification / Alternative check: Examples include modem standards where bitstreams are conveyed via PSK/QAM over telephone lines and radio links, confirming the digital-to-analog classification. Why Other Options Are Wrong: digital-to-digital: line coding on baseband copper, not passband carrier modulation.analog-to-analog: AM/FM for analog sources, not digital symbols.analog-to-digital: sampling/quantization (PCM), not modulation.None of the above: incorrect because digital-to-analog is correct. Common Pitfalls: Mixing up line coding with modulation; forgetting that “keying” implies digital symbol control of a continuous carrier. Final Answer: digital-to-analog.

Question 5

Transmission over telephone lines: which mode is used to carry data along telephone lines between devices—parallel or serial (and related timing variants)?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS) and similar links carry information as a single channel with relatively low bandwidth. To traverse such media, data is sent one bit at a time over a single pair—this is serial transmission. Timing can be synchronous (shared clocking or framing) or asynchronous (start/stop), but both are serial. The question asks you to choose the transmission “mode” used along telephone lines in contrast to parallel wiring between chips or inside a computer. Given Data / Assumptions: Medium: telephone line with limited bandwidth. Interface: modems or terminal adapters converting digital to passband signals. We differentiate “serial vs parallel,” not timing flavors. Concept / Approach: Telephone lines support serial transmission. Parallel requires multiple wires carrying bits simultaneously and is limited to very short distances (inside a device or chassis). Synchronous and asynchronous describe timing within serial transmission; they are not alternatives to serial for the physical medium choice here. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the physical constraint: a single low-bandwidth channel over long distance.Match to serial transmission (one bit at a time on one channel).Note that synchronous/asynchronous are serial timing methods, not separate physical modes for this context. Verification / Alternative check: Modem standards (V.32, V.34, etc.) all encapsulate serial bitstreams over the phone line; legacy RS-232 to modem connections produce serial frames carried over the network. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Parallel: requires multiple conductors in parallel; not feasible over PSTN distances.Synchronous / Asynchronous: timing styles within serial; they do not replace serial as the physical transfer mode.None of the above: incorrect because serial is correct. Common Pitfalls: Treating synchronous/asynchronous as mutually exclusive with serial; they are subtypes of serial transmission. Final Answer: Serial.

Question 6

X.25 internetworking: which ITU-T standard provides virtual-circuit service for interconnecting multiple X.25 networks (i.e., gatewaying across packet-switched networks)?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: The X.25 suite defined packet-switched virtual circuits within a single public data network. When two such networks needed to interconnect and carry virtual circuits between them, an additional standard specified the interface and procedures at the network boundary. Knowing which document covers inter-network gatewaying clarifies the architecture of legacy data networks. Given Data / Assumptions: Context: packet-switched public data networks using X.25. Goal: interconnect networks and carry virtual circuits across them. We select the standard addressing inter-network interfaces. Concept / Approach: X.75 defines the inter-network interface between X.25 networks, enabling virtual circuit transfer across network boundaries. X.25 itself specifies subscriber-to-network and internal procedures, X.21 covers circuit-switched signaling interfaces, and X.400 is a message handling system standard unrelated to virtual-circuit network interconnection. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify that the requirement is inter-network (between two X.25 PDNs).Match this with X.75, the inter-PDN interface standard.Eliminate X.25 (subscriber/PDN), X.21 (circuit-switched), and X.400 (messaging). Verification / Alternative check: Historical PDN documentation references X.75 trunks between carriers to extend virtual circuits internationally, confirming X.75’s role. Why Other Options Are Wrong: X.25: defines packet layer/user access, not inter-PDN gatewaying.X.400: email/messaging standard, not packet switching.X.21: signaling for circuit-switched bearer lines, not packet interconnection.None of the above: incorrect because X.75 is correct. Common Pitfalls: Assuming X.25 alone covers all aspects; it does not specify carrier-to-carrier interconnection, which is the realm of X.75. Final Answer: X.75.

Question 7

Communications satellites: what is the term used for the multiple repeater units onboard a communications satellite that receive, shift frequency, amplify, and retransmit signals?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Communications satellites carry several repeating units that listen to uplink frequencies, convert them to downlink bands, amplify, and retransmit toward Earth. Knowing the proper name for these onboard repeaters is basic to satellite communications, link budgeting, and transponder-leasing business models. Given Data / Assumptions: The device receives an RF uplink and retransmits on a downlink band. It performs frequency conversion and amplification. Multiple such units exist per satellite to form distinct channels/beams. Concept / Approach: Each onboard repeating unit is called a transponder. Ground “stations” are on Earth, not onboard. A “modulator” is a subsystem that imposes information on a carrier, not the entire repeater chain. “Detector” refers to demodulation components in receivers, not satellite repeaters. Therefore, “transponders” is the correct term. Step-by-Step Solution: Match the described function (receive→frequency shift→amplify→retransmit) to the standard satellite term.Confirm that multiple such units coexist on a satellite to support many channels.Select “transponders.” Verification / Alternative check: Satellite specifications list the number and bandwidth of transponders (e.g., 36 MHz C-band transponders), which define the satellite’s capacity. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Detector: a receiver component, not a satellite repeater.Modulator: only part of a transmitter chain.Stations: refers to Earth stations, not onboard devices.None of the above: incorrect because “transponders” is correct. Common Pitfalls: Confusing Earth stations with onboard equipment; equating modulation with the entire repeat-and-forward path. Final Answer: transponders.

Question 8

In TCP/IP networking, which protocol specifically provides a remote terminal connection service that lets a user interact with a distant host's command-line session as if locally attached?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Remote terminal access is a classic requirement in computer networks. Within the TCP/IP suite, one protocol was defined expressly to provide interactive, character-based sessions on remote systems. Knowing which protocol offers this “virtual terminal” service helps differentiate it from file transfer, name/address resolution, or transport-only mechanisms. Given Data / Assumptions: The question asks for the TCP/IP protocol that enables interactive remote terminal connections. The context is command-line access (character-oriented), not file transfer or background data movement. The protocol predates modern secure alternatives but remains historically important. Concept / Approach: TELNET provides a Network Virtual Terminal model over TCP. It negotiates options (like echoing) and carries keystrokes and screen output between client and server, giving the user a live shell on the remote host. By contrast, FTP is for file transfer; RARP was for address resolution from MAC to IP on legacy LANs; UDP is a transport protocol, not an application service; SSH is a secure modern replacement but was not the original TCP/IP “remote terminal connection service.” Step-by-Step Solution: Identify protocols by function: terminal (TELNET), files (FTP), resolution (RARP), transport (UDP). Match “remote terminal connection service” to TELNET’s purpose. Select TELNET as the correct answer. Verification / Alternative check: Default port mappings confirm roles: TELNET typically uses TCP port 23, FTP uses TCP ports 21/20, and SSH (a secure replacement) uses TCP port 22. Historical admin practices used TELNET widely before encrypted alternatives became standard. Why Other Options Are Wrong: FTP: transfers files; not an interactive terminal protocol. RARP: resolves MAC to IP; unrelated to remote login. UDP: transport layer, not a terminal application protocol. SSH: provides secure terminal access, but the question asks for the standard TCP/IP remote terminal service—TELNET. Common Pitfalls: Assuming any remote shell implies SSH; exam questions often test recognition that TELNET is the classic, non-encrypted terminal protocol. Final Answer: TELNET

Question 9

Local area networks and ARCNET hubs: which statement is correct regarding realistic characteristics (expansion limits, access costs, and hub behavior) for these technologies?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: LAN technologies come with practical limits on size, topology, and signaling. ARCNET (Attached Resource Computer NETwork), one of the earliest LANs, supported star-wired bus topologies using hubs with specific signal-handling behavior. This question asks you to identify the realistic and historically accurate statement among several distractors about LANs and ARCNET hubs. Given Data / Assumptions: ARCNET used token passing and supported star-wired and bus variants with active hubs. Hubs in ARCNET implemented signal conditioning/steering rather than layer-3 routing. General statements about LANs should reflect realistic limits and economics. Concept / Approach: Evaluate each option for historical and technical accuracy: (a) “alternative routing” describes network-layer path selection, not hub behavior in ARCNET. (b) “unlimited expansion” is false; LANs have physical, address, and timing limits. (c) “low-cost access for low-bandwidth channels” is vague/misleading for LANs whose goals are typically low latency and relatively high bandwidth locally. (d) ARCNET hubs used directionalized transmission/retiming to steer and regenerate frames toward appropriate segments in star-wired bus deployments—this aligns with documented behavior of ARCNET active hubs. Therefore, (d) is the correct statement. Step-by-Step Solution: Analyze hub behavior: hubs are not routers; “alternative routing” is not applicable → eliminate (a). Check LAN scalability claim: real LANs are finite → eliminate (b). Consider economic/technical goals of LANs: “low-cost for low-bandwidth channels” mischaracterizes LANs → eliminate (c). Recognize ARCNET hub signaling (directionalized/retimed) → select (d). Verification / Alternative check: ARCNET literature describes active hubs isolating segments and directing signals, enabling star-wired configurations versus pure bus wiring. This directional handling improved reliability and reach without implying network-layer routing. Why Other Options Are Wrong: (a) ARCNET hubs did not perform path routing; they operated at the signaling/line level. (b) LAN expansion is constrained by media, timing, and addressing limits. (c) LANs target efficient local high-speed access, not “low-bandwidth channels.” (e) Not applicable since (d) is accurate. Common Pitfalls: Confusing hub signal steering/regeneration with routing; believing LANs can scale indefinitely without re-architecture; conflating WAN economic tradeoffs with LAN design goals. Final Answer: A characteristic of the hub architecture of ARCNET is directionalized transmission.

Question 10

When diagnosing TCP/IP stacks on hosts and servers, which built-in utility is the most all-purpose tool for inspecting active connections, listening sockets, interface statistics, and routing tables?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Effective troubleshooting requires visibility into which processes are bound to which ports, what connections are established, and how many packets/bytes interfaces have handled. A single utility on most operating systems offers a broad view of sockets, routes, and interface statistics—making it the go-to “all-purpose” TCP/IP diagnostic tool. Given Data / Assumptions: The utility should reveal active and listening sockets. It should display routing and per-interface counters. It is built-in or commonly available on major OS platforms. Concept / Approach: Netstat reports per-protocol statistics (TCP/UDP), established and listening ports, route tables, and interface counters. By contrast, PING checks basic reachability/latency only; NBTSTAT focuses on NetBIOS-over-TCP/IP status; Hostname merely prints the local host name; and Traceroute maps path hops but does not show local socket/port usage. Therefore, Netstat is the broadest single tool for local TCP/IP stack inspection. Step-by-Step Solution: List required capabilities: sockets + routes + stats. Match capabilities to utilities → Netstat covers all three. Select Netstat as the all-purpose choice. Verification / Alternative check: Examples: netstat -an to list sockets; netstat -r for routes; netstat -i for interface stats. Modern equivalents like ss (Linux) maintain similar functionality, confirming the concept. Why Other Options Are Wrong: NBTSTAT: NetBIOS-focused; limited scope. PING: reachability only. Hostname: prints name; no diagnostics. Traceroute: path discovery; not local socket/route inspection. Common Pitfalls: Trying to diagnose port conflicts or listen states with PING/Traceroute; overlooking firewall states when reading Netstat outputs—combine with other tools as needed. Final Answer: Netstat

Question 11

Which portion of the radio spectrum, specifically 300 kHz to 3 MHz (Medium Frequency band), is used for standard AM broadcast transmission?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Radio services are allocated into named frequency bands, each associated with characteristic propagation and use cases. The Medium Frequency (MF) band spans roughly 300 kHz to 3 MHz and includes the familiar medium-wave AM broadcast band heard on consumer AM radios. Given Data / Assumptions: Frequency range under consideration: 300 kHz to 3 MHz (MF band). We are referring to standard AM broadcast (medium-wave), not shortwave or FM. Typical AM broadcast allocations (e.g., about 530–1700 kHz) lie within MF. Concept / Approach: Match the provided frequency interval to known broadcast services. Standard AM broadcast is a medium-wave service squarely within the MF band. FM broadcast uses VHF near 88–108 MHz. Television and microwave/satellite/radar occupy higher bands (VHF/UHF/microwave), not the MF slice in question. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the band: 300 kHz to 3 MHz → Medium Frequency. Associate services: AM medium-wave broadcast resides here. Eliminate FM/TV/microwave options as belonging to higher frequencies. Select “AM radio transmission.” Verification / Alternative check: Regulatory band plans show AM medium-wave channels within MF, while FM broadcast is in VHF, and TV occupies VHF/UHF bands, confirming the mapping. Why Other Options Are Wrong: FM radio: typically 88–108 MHz (VHF). TV transmission: commonly VHF/UHF, not MF. Microwave/satellite/radar: GHz-range bands far above MF. None: incorrect because AM broadcast is the correct mapping. Common Pitfalls: Confusing “AM” as a generic modulation type; the question targets standard AM broadcast in the medium-wave band. Final Answer: AM radio transmission

Question 12

IEEE 802 family: which standard specifically defines classic Ethernet media access and physical specifications (the CSMA/CD-based LAN standard)?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: The IEEE 802 project organized LAN/MAN standards by technology families. Recognizing which number corresponds to Ethernet is fundamental for networking exams, vendor certifications, and standards literacy. Given Data / Assumptions: We need the standard that defines classic Ethernet (originally CSMA/CD). The options list several IEEE 802 working groups/sub-standards. We focus on the correct numeric mapping, not operational details. Concept / Approach: IEEE 802.3 defines Ethernet physical/MAC layers and has evolved from shared coax to twisted pair and fiber at speeds from 10 Mbps to multi-100 Gbps+. IEEE 802.2 historically defined LLC, 802.4 was token bus, 802.5 token ring, and 802.6 metropolitan area networks—none of which are the Ethernet spec itself. Step-by-Step Solution: Map technology → Ethernet → IEEE 802.3. Eliminate token bus (802.4), token ring (802.5), and LLC (802.2). Select 802.3 as the Ethernet standard. Verification / Alternative check: Vendor datasheets and standards references cite 802.3 for Ethernet PHY/MAC features such as autonegotiation, twisted-pair cabling (100BASE-TX, 1000BASE-T), and fiber variants—confirming this mapping. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 802.2: Logical Link Control, not Ethernet MAC/PHY. 802.4: Token Bus. 802.5: Token Ring. 802.6: MAN standardization, not Ethernet. Common Pitfalls: Confusing 802.2 (LLC) with 802.3 (Ethernet) because both appear in older layered diagrams. Final Answer: 802.3

Question 13

Which connectivity device extends a network on a purely mechanical/passive basis (no signal regeneration or frame switching), simply distributing the electrical signal to multiple ports?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Network extension can occur at different OSI layers and with varying levels of intelligence. Some devices merely distribute signals, while others regenerate, filter, or forward frames based on MAC or IP addresses. Identifying the most primitive, passive form clarifies the spectrum from simple cabling aids to full-fledged switches and routers. Given Data / Assumptions: “Purely mechanical/passive” means no amplification, regeneration, or decision-making. The device fans out a signal to multiple ports, like a wiring concentrator. It contrasts with active hubs (repeaters), switches (bridges), and routers (layer-3 forwarding). Concept / Approach: A passive hub operates like a simple signal splitter on a shared medium; it does not regenerate or reshape the signal. An active hub (multiport repeater) regenerates bits. A switch (multiport bridge) forwards frames intelligently using MAC learning. A router forwards at layer 3, and a gateway typically performs protocol translation/mediation. Therefore, the only device matching “purely mechanical/passive” is the passive hub. Step-by-Step Solution: Interpret “purely mechanical/passive” → no power-based regeneration, no MAC or IP logic. Match to device taxonomy: passive hub distributes the incoming signal as-is. Eliminate active hub (regenerates), switch (L2), router (L3), gateway (L4+ or protocol translation). Select “Passive hub.” Verification / Alternative check: Historical Ethernet topologies (10BASE-T) occasionally used passive concentrators in lab/demo setups, while production deployments favored active hubs or switches for signal integrity—underscoring the passive hub's purely mechanical nature. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Active hub: electrically regenerates the signal. Switch: forwards frames based on MAC addresses. Router: forwards packets based on IP addressing and routing tables. Gateway: performs higher-layer/protocol conversions. Common Pitfalls: Using “hub” generically; not all hubs are passive. Many hubs in practice were active repeaters, but the question explicitly requires a purely passive device. Final Answer: Passive hub

Question 14

A modem is connected between a public telephone line and which endpoint device to enable digital data communication over analog circuits?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Modems (modulator–demodulators) convert between a computer’s digital bitstream and the analog signals that traverse legacy telephone networks. Understanding what sits on each side of a modem clarifies how dial-up and many early WAN links functioned before native digital access became commonplace. Given Data / Assumptions: One side of the modem connects to the analog telephone line (RJ-11, two-wire loop). The other side connects to a digital endpoint device that generates/consumes data. Interface to the endpoint may be via a serial port, but the endpoint itself is the computer (DTE). Concept / Approach: A modem sits between the telephone line and the computer (Data Terminal Equipment). The computer typically connects through an RS-232/USB interface to the modem, which in turn couples to the analog loop. Options like “serial port” name an interface type rather than the endpoint device; “network” is too vague; “communication adapter” is redundant with the modem’s role; “multiplexer” is a separate device class. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the analog side: telephone line → modem port. Identify the digital endpoint: computer (DTE) → modem via serial/USB. Select “Computer” as the correct pairing. Verification / Alternative check: Typical setups: external modems connected to PCs via RS-232 (DB-25 or DE-9) while using an RJ-11 line to the PSTN. Internal modems integrate both sides on adapter cards, but the conceptual placement remains the same—between line and computer. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Network: imprecise and not the endpoint device. Communication adapter: essentially what a modem is; not the device beyond it. Serial port: an interface, not the endpoint computing device. Multiplexer: aggregates multiple channels; not the DTE here. Common Pitfalls: Equating the serial port with the computer; the port is merely the attachment interface for the computer. Final Answer: Computer

Question 15

In data communication hardware, what is the primary function of a serial interface with respect to data format conversion at the device boundary?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Most computers process data in parallel internally, while many communication links transmit bits serially over a single pair or wire. The hardware at the edge—often implemented as a UART or similar component—must translate between these representations so that bytes from the system bus can be serialized onto the line and vice versa. Given Data / Assumptions: Inside the computer: parallel data on buses/registers. On the line: serial bit stream with start/stop, parity, or synchronous framing. The “serial interface” sits between the bus and the communication line. Concept / Approach: The essential job of a serial interface (e.g., a UART) is parallel-to-serial and serial-to-parallel conversion. On transmit, it converts parallel bytes into sequential bits with proper framing and timing. On receive, it reassembles bits into parallel bytes for the host. Among the options, the clearest statement of this conversion role is “converts parallel data into a stream of bits.” Other options either describe different functions (e.g., analog/digital conversion) or are too vague. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify internal data form: parallel. Identify line data form: serial. Map serial interface function → parallel-to-serial conversion (TX) and the inverse (RX). Select option (c) as the primary function. Verification / Alternative check: Datasheets for UARTs and serial controllers emphasize shift registers that serialize/deserialize data, along with baud-rate generators and framing controls—confirming the conversion role. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Audio signal conversion: not inherent to serial interfaces. Analog-to-digital conversion: done by ADCs/modems, not UARTs. “Decodes incoming signals into computer data”: too broad and not the core function stated. None: incorrect because (c) is correct. Common Pitfalls: Confusing modems (analog/digital conversion) with UARTs (serial/parallel conversion); overlooking that framing is part of the serial interface’s job but the defining role is serialization. Final Answer: Converts parallel data into a stream of bits

Question 16

For satellite communication links, which statement correctly describes the frequency relationship between the uplink (earth-to-satellite) and the downlink (satellite-to-earth) used by a transponder?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Satellite transponders receive an uplink signal from an earth station, translate it in frequency, amplify it, and retransmit it back toward earth on a separate downlink frequency. The frequency planning accounts for power limits on the satellite and regulatory allocations, with uplinks typically higher than downlinks in a given band pair (e.g., C, Ku, Ka bands). Given Data / Assumptions: The question asks about the relative frequency used for uplink versus downlink. Transponders perform frequency translation (not a transparent echo) to avoid interference and allow duplexing. Power constraints on spacecraft favor higher-frequency uplinks and lower-frequency downlinks. Concept / Approach: In common satellite bands, earth stations transmit at a higher frequency (uplink) because they can provide higher Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP). The satellite then retransmits toward earth at a lower frequency (downlink) that offers better atmospheric penetration or lower path loss under the satellite’s limited onboard power. The transponder inherently shifts frequency and amplifies, rather than merely “mirroring” the signal without change. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify correct pattern: uplink frequency > downlink frequency within a band pair. Eliminate statements claiming no change or code conversion as the primary role. Select the option stating “higher for reception (uplink), lower for transmission (downlink).” Verification / Alternative check: Examples: C-band typically uses ~6 GHz uplink and ~4 GHz downlink; Ku-band ~14 GHz uplink and ~12 GHz downlink; Ka-band ~30 GHz uplink and ~20 GHz downlink—each illustrating the higher-uplink/lower-downlink pattern. Why Other Options Are Wrong: (b) A transponder is not a pure mirror; it frequency-translates and amplifies. (c) Coding may occur elsewhere; frequency translation is the transponder’s core RF function. (d) Reverses the typical uplink/downlink relationship. (e) Not applicable since (a) is correct. Common Pitfalls: Assuming “echo” behavior; forgetting that duplexing requires distinct uplink/downlink frequencies; mixing band examples but the relative ordering remains the same. Final Answer: Satellite transponders use a higher frequency for reception from earth stations and a lower frequency for transmission to earth stations.

Question 17

In digital communications, modulation where the two binary values (0 and 1) are represented by two distinct amplitudes of the same carrier frequency is called:

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Digital modulation maps bits to changes in a carrier signal so information can be sent reliably over band-limited, noisy channels. A foundational scheme alters only the amplitude of a fixed-frequency carrier to distinguish binary symbols. This question asks you to identify the precise name of that method. Given Data / Assumptions: Binary symbols must be encoded on a single carrier frequency. Only the carrier amplitude changes between the two bit values. Phase and frequency remain constant across symbols. Concept / Approach: When binary data is conveyed by toggling the carrier's amplitude between two discrete levels—one for bit 0 and another for bit 1—the scheme is called amplitude-shift keying (ASK). If the lower level is exactly zero for one symbol, it is sometimes referred to as on-off keying (OOK), which is a special case of ASK. This differs from amplitude modulation (AM), an analog scheme where a continuous message waveform varies the carrier amplitude across a continuum of values, not two discrete levels. It also differs from frequency-shift keying (FSK) and phase-shift keying (PSK), which vary frequency or phase, respectively. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify what varies between symbols: only amplitude.Confirm that the carrier frequency is constant.Match to standard terminology: amplitude-shift keying (ASK).Exclude analog AM and unrelated terms (e.g., Aloha is a random-access protocol). Verification / Alternative check: Textbook signal constellations show ASK with two points along the amplitude axis at the same phase angle. Practical radio, optical, and RFID links often employ OOK (a form of ASK) for simplicity in low-complexity devices. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Amplitude: not a modulation method by itself. Amplitude modulation: analog (continuous) rather than binary symbol mapping. Aloha: a multiple-access protocol, not a modulation type. None of the above: incorrect because ASK fits exactly. Common Pitfalls: Confusing analog AM with digital ASK; assuming OOK is separate rather than a subset of ASK; overlooking that noise immunity is typically better with PSK/QAM than simple ASK in many channels. Final Answer: Amplitude-shift keying.

Question 18

You are cabling a Windows NT office network located adjacent to a building power plant (a high-EMI environment). To minimize susceptibility to electromagnetic interference and maximize signal integrity, which cabling type is the best choice?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Selecting media for LAN cabling near heavy electrical equipment requires attention to electromagnetic interference (EMI). Power plants, elevators, and large motors generate strong fields that can induce noise on copper conductors, degrading throughput and causing errors. The goal is to choose a medium intrinsically immune to EMI for a reliable Windows NT network deployment. Given Data / Assumptions: The office is beside a building power plant (severe EMI). Standard LAN distances and speeds are assumed. We prefer a robust, future-proof, standards-based medium. Concept / Approach: Optical fiber carries signals as light, not electrical current, and is therefore immune to electromagnetic interference and radio-frequency interference. It also provides excellent security (difficult to tap) and supports long runs and high bandwidth. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is economical but most vulnerable to strong EMI. Shielded twisted pair (STP) provides better common-mode rejection, yet can still be affected and requires meticulous grounding to be effective. PSTN is not a LAN cabling medium. “TI” is not a recognized cable type here (likely a distractor). Therefore, fiber-optic cabling is the best choice in this high-EMI scenario. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify environment risk: strong EMI adjacent to power systems.Compare susceptibility: fiber < STP < UTP (lower is better).Evaluate practicality: fiber supports required distances and speeds with immunity to EMI.Select fiber-optic cabling as the best option. Verification / Alternative check: Industry design guides recommend fiber for plant floors and high-EMI areas. Many enterprises use fiber risers and backbones specifically to avoid electrical coupling issues present in copper solutions. Why Other Options Are Wrong: UTP: highly susceptible to strong EMI in proximity to power equipment. STP: better than UTP but still copper; needs perfect bonding/grounding and can still pick up interference. PSTN: a public telephone network service, not LAN cabling. TI: not a standard LAN cable type; distractor. Common Pitfalls: Assuming thicker copper or shielding always solves EMI; improperly grounded STP can behave worse than UTP. Overlooking fiber's advantages in safety isolation between electrical systems. Final Answer: Fiber-optic.

Question 19

Two PCs communicate via a direct RS-232 null-modem cable over a reasonable distance. What is the maximum standard distance (in metres) generally permitted for a null-modem RS-232 connection under RS-232 specifications?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: RS-232 is a classic serial interface used for direct device-to-device connections, including null-modem links between two computers. Cable length affects capacitance, signal attenuation, and noise susceptibility. The formal RS-232 standard specifies a conservative maximum distance to preserve signal integrity at typical data rates. This question asks for that standard limit in metres for a null-modem style RS-232 link. Given Data / Assumptions: Interface: RS-232 electrical levels and timing. Typical data rates considered by the standard (e.g., up to 19.2 kbps). Standard (conservative) limits, not best-case marketing claims. Concept / Approach: The RS-232 specification traditionally cites a maximum cable length of about 50 feet, approximately 15 metres, based on cable capacitance limits (often quoted as 2500 pF). Longer runs can sometimes work at very low baud rates with high-quality cable, but those are non-standard, best-effort scenarios and not the distance “permitted” by the specification. Therefore, when the options list distances such as 30 m, 80 m, 100 m, or 150 m, none corresponds to the canonical ~15 m standard limit, so “None of the above” is the correct response. Step-by-Step Solution: Recall standard RS-232 limit: about 15 m (50 ft) under typical conditions.Compare to options: 30, 80, 100, 150 m are all greater than the standard limit.Conclude that no listed distance matches the RS-232 specification.Select “None of the above.” Verification / Alternative check: Vendor references for RS-232 level transceivers consistently cite 15 m as the standard distance; application notes discuss extended runs only with reduced speeds and special cables, which are outside the standard guarantees. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 30 / 80 / 100 / 150 m: exceed typical RS-232 standard limits; may function only under special low-rate, low-noise conditions. Common Pitfalls: Confusing RS-422/RS-485 capabilities (hundreds of metres) with RS-232; assuming a successful ad-hoc long cable equals a standards-compliant installation. Final Answer: None of the above (standard limit ≈ 15 m).

Question 20

Within the OSI model, what does the Data-Link layer specify and provide to enable reliable exchange of data over a single physical link?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: The OSI model divides network functions into layers. The Data-Link layer (Layer 2) sits above the Physical layer and below the Network layer, providing services necessary to move frames reliably across a single link. This question checks understanding of the Data-Link layer's core responsibilities and how they differ from higher-layer interfaces like X.25 packet services. Given Data / Assumptions: Layer 2 deals with node-to-node delivery on one link. Framing, addressing (MAC), and error detection are typical layer-2 functions. X.25 packet interfaces belong to the packet (network) layer and its service access points. Concept / Approach: The Data-Link layer defines how bits are grouped into frames, how medium access is controlled, and how errors are detected and may be corrected on a single hop. Examples include Ethernet MAC with FCS, and LAPB/LAPD in WAN contexts. By contrast, “the interface between an X.25 network and a packet-mode device” and “the virtual circuit interface to packet-switched service” describe packet layer (Layer 3) service definitions rather than L2 framing procedures. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify L2 scope: single-link framing, addressing, and error detection.Match option that states these procedures explicitly.Eliminate options that describe Layer-3 packet service interfaces (X.25).Select the precise L2 description. Verification / Alternative check: Standards like IEEE 802.3 and ISO LAPB specify framing and link procedures at Layer 2, confirming the correctness of the selected option relative to X.25 packet interfaces at higher layers. Why Other Options Are Wrong: X.25 interface / virtual circuit: packet-layer (network-layer) constructs, not data-link framing. All of the above: cannot be correct because the X.25 options are not Layer 2 definitions. None of the above: incorrect because one option correctly states Layer 2's role. Common Pitfalls: Confusing service access points between layers; assuming that because LAPB is link-layer, all X.25 language refers to Layer 2 (PLP is Layer 3). Final Answer: Data-link procedures for exchanging data via frames that can be sent and received.

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