Question 1

Ethernet scaling behavior: As the number of nodes on a shared Ethernet segment increases, why does overall efficiency decrease in such environments?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Legacy shared-media Ethernet (using hubs or coax bus) relies on CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection). On a shared segment, only one device can successfully transmit at a time. As more stations contend for the channel, collisions increase and net throughput declines. Given Data / Assumptions: Scenario is a shared segment (not modern switched full-duplex per-port). Multiple hosts attempt to transmit frames over the same medium. CSMA/CD backoff determines retransmission timing after collisions. Concept / Approach: In CSMA/CD, stations listen before transmitting, but simultaneous sensing or propagation delays mean two stations can still start at nearly the same time, causing a collision. Each collision wastes medium time for jam/abort plus exponential backoff, which grows with congestion, reducing effective throughput as station count and load rise. Step-by-Step Solution: Recognize the MAC: CSMA/CD implies contention and collisions.Understand that collision domains expand with hubs/coax and more nodes.Conclude that efficiency drops primarily because collisions consume airtime and trigger backoff. Verification / Alternative check: Measurements on busy shared segments show rising collision rates and increasing backoff intervals, aligning with queueing and contention models that predict decreasing throughput at high loads. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Repeaters: they re-shape/re-time but are not the bottleneck cause of efficiency loss.Cable terminators issues: largely a coaxial bus concern; not the primary scalability limit.Line echo/impedance: may cause errors, not the systematic efficiency drop seen with contention. Common Pitfalls: Applying this logic to switched full-duplex Ethernet (no collisions); assuming signal strength fixes contention; ignoring propagation delay impact on collision windows. Final Answer: Network collisions occur.

Question 2

Transport protocols: Which file transfer protocol operates over UDP (User Datagram Protocol) rather than TCP?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Understanding which application protocols use TCP versus UDP is essential for firewall rules, performance tuning, and troubleshooting. File transfer protocols vary in complexity, reliability mechanisms, and transport choice, affecting how they behave on lossy or high-latency networks. Given Data / Assumptions: We compare several well-known protocols used for remote access and file movement. UDP is connectionless and relies on the application for reliability, if needed. TCP provides connection-oriented delivery with congestion control and retransmission. Concept / Approach: TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol) uses UDP (commonly port 69) with a simple lock-step request/acknowledgment mechanism at the application layer. In contrast, FTP and Telnet run over TCP. NFS historically used multiple transports depending on version/configuration, but classic TFTP is the canonical UDP-based file transfer protocol in basic networking curricula. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the protocol whose design is minimal and UDP-centric: TFTP.Note that FTP uses TCP control/data connections; Telnet uses TCP sessions.Select TFTP as the UDP-based file transfer protocol. Verification / Alternative check: Packet captures of a TFTP transfer show UDP datagrams with short data blocks and acknowledgments, rather than TCP segments with sequence/ack windows. Why Other Options Are Wrong: NFS: can use UDP or TCP depending on version and settings; not the single unambiguous UDP answer.TELNET: TCP by design for interactive sessions.FTP: TCP control (port 21) and TCP data channels (active/passive modes).“None of the above”: incorrect because TFTP uses UDP. Common Pitfalls: Assuming all file transfers require TCP; forgetting TFTP’s simplicity and use in PXE/bootstrapping scenarios. Final Answer: TFTP.

Question 3

Networking history and services: In classic online systems, what is a “bulletin board system (BBS)”?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Before today’s social media and cloud forums, hobbyists and organizations hosted Bulletin Board Systems (BBSs) that users dialed into with a modem. Understanding what a BBS provided helps place modern messaging and file-sharing platforms in historical context. Given Data / Assumptions: Users connected via telephone lines using dial-up modems. BBS software ran on a host computer answering incoming calls. Services typically included message boards, file libraries, and sometimes games. Concept / Approach: A BBS is fundamentally a public (or semi-public) access message and file-sharing system. The modem is merely the access device at the user and host ends; the BBS is the software/service offering message posting, threaded discussions, mailboxes, and downloads/uploads under operator policies (sysop). Step-by-Step Solution: Differentiate between service and hardware: a BBS is a service, not the modem.Identify BBS features: message areas, user accounts, file sections, chat.Select the description that captures the service nature of a BBS. Verification / Alternative check: Period manuals for popular packages (e.g., Synchronet, WWIV) describe message subsystems and user moderation—not signal conversion hardware roles. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Modem capable of accepting commands”: describes a device, not the hosted service.Analog/digital conversion options: define modem functions, not a BBS.“None of the above”: incorrect because the public access message system definition is accurate. Common Pitfalls: Equating dial-up access hardware with the service; overlooking that some BBSs were private but functionally the same system. Final Answer: is a public access message system.

Question 4

Interface standards: Which network access standard is used for connecting data terminal equipment (DTE) to a circuit-switched network?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: ITU-T X-series recommendations define several data networking standards. Distinguishing between user-network interface standards, packet-switched protocols, and inter-network links is essential when matching equipment to carrier services, especially in legacy and exam contexts. Given Data / Assumptions: We are focusing on access to a circuit-switched network. DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) needs a standardized interface to the carrier. Options include multiple X-series documents with different scopes. Concept / Approach: X.21 specifies the interface between DTE and DCE for circuit-switched digital networks, defining signaling and electrical characteristics. By contrast, X.25 specifies a packet-switched protocol suite over a network (often using LAPB at layer 2), X.75 defines inter-DCE interconnection, and X.3 covers PAD parameters for character-mode access to packet networks—none of which directly define the DTE access to a circuit-switched network. Step-by-Step Solution: Read the requirement: circuit-switched access for DTE.Map each option to its role: X.21 = circuit-switch interface; X.25 = packet network protocol; X.75 = network inter-working; X.3 = PAD parameters.Select X.21 as the correct access standard. Verification / Alternative check: Historical carrier services offering digital circuit switching (e.g., early ISDN-like services) reference X.21 for the customer interface, confirming the match. Why Other Options Are Wrong: X.3: configures PAD behavior; not a physical/logic access interface to circuit switching.X.25: packet-switched protocol stack; not circuit access.X.75: DCE-to-DCE interconnect; not DTE access.“None of the above”: incorrect because X.21 fits precisely. Common Pitfalls: Conflating packet-switched and circuit-switched standards; assuming all “X.” recommendations perform the same function. Final Answer: X.21.

Question 5

Operating systems and memory management: A subdivision of main memory created by the operating system to load and run programs or isolate workloads is commonly called a:

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Memory management determines how an operating system carves physical RAM into manageable regions for processes. Classic batch and early multi-programming systems used “partitions” to allocate fixed or variable-sized blocks of memory to jobs, influencing modern concepts like segments and address spaces. Given Data / Assumptions: We refer to OS-defined subregions of main memory. Goal is to load programs and manage isolation/resources. Terminology originates from traditional OS textbooks and job control systems. Concept / Approach: A partition is a logically defined chunk of main memory reserved for a program or job. In fixed-partition systems, memory is divided into preset blocks; in variable-partition systems, blocks are created on demand. These ideas foreshadow paging/segmentation and virtual memory, which generalize the isolation and allocation concepts across processes. The other option labels do not reflect standard OS memory terminology for this concept. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the standard term used in historical OS designs: partition.Compare alternatives and note their mismatch with memory allocation jargon.Select “partition” as the correct term. Verification / Alternative check: Classic IBM mainframe JCL and early operating systems texts consistently use “partition” to denote memory subdivisions for jobs or tasks. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Compartment: not a formal OS memory term in this context.Time-shared program: describes a scheduling paradigm, not a memory region.Divided core: archaic phrasing, not the canonical term.“None of the above”: incorrect because “partition” is standard. Common Pitfalls: Confusing logical partitions of disks with memory partitions; assuming paging eliminated the concept (it evolved rather than vanished). Final Answer: partition.

Question 6

Signals and systems: The size or magnitude of a voltage or current waveform is called its ______.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Electrical and communication signals can be characterized by several parameters, including amplitude, frequency, and phase. Recognizing these terms is essential for understanding modulation schemes, filter behavior, and measurement readings in labs and field diagnostics. Given Data / Assumptions: Waveform may be voltage or current versus time. We are asked about its size or magnitude. Basic terminology is being tested. Concept / Approach: Amplitude is the magnitude or “height” of a waveform, typically measured from a reference (often zero or a mean value) to a peak value. In sinusoidal signals, you may see peak, peak-to-peak, or RMS amplitude specified, each with precise definitions. The other options either relate to network access protocols (Aloha), types of modulation (angle modulation changes phase/frequency, not magnitude directly), or a transmission effect (attenuation) that reduces amplitude but is not the name for magnitude itself. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify that “size/magnitude” of a waveform corresponds to amplitude.Exclude protocol and modulation terms unrelated to basic magnitude.Confirm amplitude as the correct descriptive term. Verification / Alternative check: Oscilloscope measurements display voltage amplitude (e.g., Vpp, Vrms) directly, underscoring amplitude as the measure of magnitude. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Aloha: random access network protocol; unrelated to signal magnitude.Angle Modulation: class of modulation varying frequency/phase, not the magnitude itself.Attenuation: describes reduction in amplitude due to loss, not the inherent size.“None of the above”: incorrect because “Amplitude” is the correct term. Common Pitfalls: Mixing up RMS versus peak definitions; assuming “attenuation” names the magnitude rather than the loss process. Final Answer: Amplitude.

Question 7

Network monitoring requirement: Alex must report how many users are currently on the network at any moment. Which network model makes this easiest to determine reliably?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Knowing who is online and how many users are active is an administrative function. Centralization strongly influences visibility: the more services and authentication pass through managed points, the easier it is to measure concurrent usage accurately. Given Data / Assumptions: Alex needs real-time counts of users on the network. We compare network models rather than physical topologies or MAC methods. Accuracy and reliability of the count are important. Concept / Approach: In a server-based network or domain, users authenticate to centralized directory services and consume resources via managed servers (file, application, proxy). These choke points provide session logs, active connection tables, and license counts—making “who is connected” observable. In contrast, a purely peer-to-peer environment distributes control across endpoints with minimal central logging, making accurate concurrent user counts difficult without additional tooling. Physical topology (star) or MAC type (Token-Ring, Ethernet) does not by itself ensure centralized session visibility. Step-by-Step Solution: Clarify requirement: authoritative user counts, not just link-light status.Map models to visibility: server-based designs aggregate auth and services.Select server-based as the model that best supports reliable counting. Verification / Alternative check: Domain controllers, RADIUS/SSO portals, VPN concentrators, or license servers in server-based networks expose concurrent session metrics through logs/APIs, enabling accurate reporting. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Token-Ring/Ethernet: describe MAC/technology, not centralized accounting.Star: a physical layout; does not guarantee centralized user metrics.Peer-to-peer: decentralization hampers accurate central counting. Common Pitfalls: Confusing switch MAC tables with authenticated user sessions; assuming topology implies accounting capability. Final Answer: Server-based.

Question 8

Long-distance terrestrial links: Which data transmission medium offers the largest terrestrial range between endpoints without using repeaters or intermediate devices?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Different media support different maximum spans before amplification, regeneration, or relaying is required. For terrestrial (earth-bound) point-to-point links, practical un-repeated distance depends on physics, line-of-sight, attenuation, and atmospheric effects. Selecting the medium impacts deployment cost, availability, and reliability. Given Data / Assumptions: “Terrestrial” excludes space-based relays (i.e., satellites). We compare typical un-repeated spans under practical engineering limits. Environmental constraints like weather and terrain apply. Concept / Approach: Terrestrial microwave links (licensed bands) use high-gain dish antennas and clear line-of-sight paths over towers or hilltops. With proper fade margins and frequency planning, single hops of tens of kilometers are routine, and longer hops are possible under favorable conditions. By contrast, “hardwiring” (copper) suffers higher attenuation and noise pickup over distance without active repeaters. Free-space optical (laser) links can be high-bandwidth but are severely limited by fog, rain, and alignment, reducing dependable reach compared with microwave. Satellite is not terrestrial and relies on off-earth relays, so it does not meet the question’s constraint. Step-by-Step Solution: Exclude satellite because it is non-terrestrial by definition.Compare copper vs. microwave: copper requires frequent regeneration; microwave supports long LOS spans.Compare laser vs. microwave: optical suffers more from atmospheric attenuation and beam wander for long spans.Select microwave as the medium with the largest practical terrestrial hop without repeaters. Verification / Alternative check: Real-world telecom backbones have historically used multi-hop microwave routes with typical hop lengths of 30–50 km (or more with tall towers and high fade margins), validating microwave’s superior un-repeated terrestrial reach relative to copper or free-space optical. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Hardwiring: copper spans are limited by resistance and crosstalk; repeaters are needed frequently.Satellite: violates the “terrestrial” constraint.Laser: susceptible to weather/visibility; practical spans shorter than microwave for dependable service.“None of the above”: incorrect because microwave fits. Common Pitfalls: Assuming fiber is implied by “hardwiring” (the option explicitly states hardwiring, i.e., copper). Also, mistaking theoretical optical ranges for practical carrier-grade availability. Final Answer: Microwave.

Question 9

In wide-area data communication, computers around the world can exchange data over public telephone/cable lines or wireless links. Which special accessory on the user’s side enables a digital computer to communicate over such analog carrier networks?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Before always-on broadband and fiber became ubiquitous, most wide-area computer communications relied on carrier networks such as telephone lines or hybrid cable systems. A personal computer generates digital signals, whereas these carrier networks historically transported analog waveforms. A device was required to convert between the two worlds so that distant computers could “talk.” Given Data / Assumptions: The end system is a digital computer. The long-haul link is an analog carrier (classic PSTN/cable) or uses similar modulation concepts. Goal: enable bidirectional exchange of data between distant endpoints. Concept / Approach: A modem (modulator/demodulator) converts outgoing digital bits into analog signals suitable for transmission and converts incoming analog signals back into digital form. Even with modern digital access links, the conceptual role remains: adapt the computer’s digital interface to the service provider’s access technology (DSL/cable/fixed wireless/fiber ONT act as evolutions of this function). Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Identify mismatch: computer outputs digital signals; many wide-area links historically accept analog carriers. 2) Apply modulation: the modem modulates digital data onto an analog carrier for transmission. 3) Apply demodulation at the receiving side to recover the original digital bitstream. 4) Result: two computers exchange data reliably across long distances. Verification / Alternative check: Observe dial-up or cable/DSL setups: the customer-premises equipment negotiates line parameters (training/handshake), establishes symbol rates and error control, and exposes a digital interface (serial/Ethernet) to the computer or router. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Keyboard: human input device, not a communication adapter. Scanner: digitizes images, not line signaling. Fax machine: sends images of pages via analog modulation but is not a general-purpose computer data interface. None of the above: incorrect because a modem fills the exact role. Common Pitfalls: Confusing “modem” with “router”—a router forwards IP packets between networks; a modem adapts signals to the access medium. Many ISP devices bundle both functions, but the modulation/demodulation role remains essential. Final Answer: Modem

Question 10

To reduce transmission errors, a check figure (checksum/CRC) is computed and appended to the frame/segment. Which endpoint actually computes this check value before sending?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Error detection in data communication relies on adding redundancy to outbound data so the receiver can verify integrity. Common techniques include parity, checksums, and Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC). Understanding which side computes and appends the check value clarifies how frames and segments are protected in flight. Given Data / Assumptions: Sender and receiver share the same error-detection algorithm. The channel can introduce random bit errors, bursts, or other corruption. The receiver can recompute the check to validate correctness. Concept / Approach: The transmitting endpoint computes the check figure over the payload (and sometimes header fields), then appends it to the outgoing unit (frame/segment). The receiver recomputes the same function over the received data and compares its locally computed value to the received check field. A mismatch indicates corruption and triggers a discard and, depending on layer, a retransmission. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Sender computes check = f(data). 2) Sender appends check to the outgoing unit. 3) Receiver computes check’ = f(received_data). 4) If check’ equals received check, accept; else, detect error and act (drop/NAK/timeout-based retransmit upstream). Verification / Alternative check: Inspect protocol specs: Ethernet adds a 32-bit FCS generated by the transmitter; TCP/UDP include a checksum set by the sender; PPP/HDLC attach a CRC at transmission time. Receivers recompute and verify but do not originate the transmitted check figure. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Receiving computer: it verifies, not appends the original transmitted check. Both compute and append: only the sender appends; the receiver merely recomputes for comparison. Start/stop bit generator: pertains to asynchronous serial framing, not error-detection value creation. None: incorrect because the transmitter is responsible. Common Pitfalls: Assuming “both” because the receiver also computes a value; the receiver’s computation is for verification only and is not attached to the transmitted data. Final Answer: Transmitting computer

Question 11

A network designer connects 5 routers so that each ordered pair of routers has a one-way (simplex) point-to-point line. How many simplex lines are required for full pairwise reachability?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Designing interconnections between routers depends on link directionality. With duplex links, a single line supports both directions. With simplex links, each direction needs its own separate line. Counting the number of links required clarifies physical cost and scalability. Given Data / Assumptions: There are n = 5 routers. Links are point-to-point and simplex (supporting traffic in only one direction). Goal: every ordered pair (A → B) has a dedicated path (complete directed connectivity using direct links). Concept / Approach: In a complete mesh with duplex lines, the count is n*(n-1)/2 undirected links. For simplex lines, each undirected pair requires two oppositely directed lines. Therefore, the required count doubles: n*(n-1). For n = 5, that equals 5*4 = 20. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Count unordered pairs for a mesh: C(5, 2) = 10. 2) Each pair needs two opposite one-way lines for bidirectional communication. 3) Total simplex lines = 10 * 2 = 20. 4) Therefore, 20 simplex lines are required. Verification / Alternative check: General formula: simplex lines = n*(n-1). Substitute n = 5 → 20. Cross-check by enumerating pairs (A,B) where A ≠ B; there are 5*4 such ordered pairs. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 5: corresponds to a ring, not a full mesh. 10: equals a full mesh if lines were duplex, not simplex. 32: exceeds n*(n-1) for n = 5; not applicable. None: incorrect because 20 is exact. Common Pitfalls: Forgetting to double the pair count for simplex; confusing point-to-point with shared media; assuming multi-hop routing removes the need for links (the question asks for direct lines between every ordered pair). Final Answer: 20

Question 12

Within the OSI model, what is the primary responsibility of the Physical layer in a data network?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: The OSI model partitions networking into seven layers to separate concerns. The Physical layer (Layer 1) deals with how bits are transmitted over a medium. Distinguishing Layer 1 responsibilities from Layers 2 and 3 prevents design and exam errors. Given Data / Assumptions: Physical layer focuses on media, connectors, voltage/waveform levels, timing, and line coding. Higher layers (Data Link, Network) handle framing, addressing, and routing. Concept / Approach: Layer 1 specifications include signal levels, encoding (e.g., NRZ, PAM), clocking, wavelength/frequency, connector pinouts, and maximum run lengths. Error control (ARQ/FEC) is typically Layer 2 or higher; packet construction and end-to-end delivery are Layer 3+ tasks. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Map each option to an OSI layer. 2) Electrical/optical/radio signaling → Layer 1. 3) Error detection/correction → Layer 2 (frame checks, ARQ/FEC). 4) Packet construction/end-to-end delivery → Layers 3–4. Verification / Alternative check: Standards such as IEEE 802.3 Physical Medium Attachment (PMA) sublayer, RS-232, and optical PHYs define only transmission characteristics and not frame logic or routing semantics. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Error control: belongs to data link (e.g., CRC/ARQ) or above. Packet construction/end-to-end: belongs to network/transport layers. All of the above: mixes responsibilities across layers. None: incorrect because (a) is correct. Common Pitfalls: Assuming “error detection” is always physical; confusing signal integrity (attenuation, noise margins) with protocol-level error handling. Final Answer: Define electrical/optical/radio characteristics and signaling between equipment

Question 13

Which device enables communication between devices on one IP network and devices on a different IP network (possibly with protocol translation or policy control)?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Interconnecting dissimilar or separate networks often requires an intermediate device that understands both sides. While routers move packets between IP subnets, the broader term “gateway” historically denotes a device that connects different networks and can perform translation, policy enforcement, or application mediation. Given Data / Assumptions: Two networks are distinct at Layer 3 or above. Communication requires crossing a boundary (addressing, policy, or protocol differences). Concept / Approach: A gateway connects networks and may translate between protocols or simply route between IP subnets while applying access control, NAT, or application proxies. In many enterprise diagrams, the default gateway is the router interface that leads off the local subnet. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Identify need: cross-network communication. 2) Map device role: gateway handles inter-network traffic and mediation. 3) Exclude devices that only multiplex or modulate signals. Verification / Alternative check: Network hosts are configured with a “default gateway” IP for off-subnet traffic. Security gateways also implement firewalls, NAT, or application proxies to govern cross-network communication. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Multiplexer: shares a medium among inputs; not inter-networking. T-switch: not a standard inter-networking device. Modem: adapts signals to access media; not a cross-network policy/forwarding element by itself. None: incorrect because gateways fulfill the requirement. Common Pitfalls: Equating “gateway” strictly with “router”: routers are a common form of gateway, but gateways may also perform translation beyond pure IP routing. Final Answer: Gateway

Question 14

Using multiple DHCP servers correctly, how should scopes be defined so that address assignment works without conflicts or exhaustion?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) automates IP address assignment. When deploying multiple DHCP servers, careful scope planning is essential to avoid duplicate leases, address conflicts, and unexpected exhaustion across subnets. Given Data / Assumptions: Environment has multiple subnets/VLANs. There are two or more DHCP servers available. Goal: reliable assignment with no overlapping pools. Concept / Approach: Each subnet needs its own defined scope (pool of addresses and options). With multiple servers, scopes must be non-overlapping for a given subnet or coordinated via split-scope/failover so that no two servers hand out the same address. Practically, servers are configured to serve different subnets or split a subnet’s pool carefully (e.g., 80/20) with proper failover settings. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Enumerate subnets and required address ranges. 2) Assign scopes per subnet to specific servers, ensuring non-overlap. 3) If redundancy is required, use DHCP failover or split-scopes with mutually exclusive ranges. 4) Validate options (router, DNS, lease times) per subnet. Verification / Alternative check: Check lease databases for duplicates; run conflict detection; verify helper-address/relay configuration so requests from each subnet reach the intended DHCP servers. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Unique to that subnet only (ambiguous): a scope should match a subnet, but across multiple servers the key is non-overlapping scopes per subnet, not a vague uniqueness statement. No more than two subnets per server: arbitrary and not a protocol rule. No subnets/APIPA: would break centralized management. None: incorrect because non-overlapping, per-subnet scopes are best practice. Common Pitfalls: Overlapping pools between servers, forgetting DHCP relay (IP helper) configuration, and inconsistent option sets that confuse clients. Final Answer: For different subnets (non-overlapping scopes per subnet)

Question 15

In synchronous data communication, what is the name of the receiver-side equalizer that continually adjusts itself to compensate for changing line conditions?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Synchronous modems and modern digital receivers must undo channel distortion introduced by bandwidth limits, echoes, and frequency-dependent attenuation. Equalizers compensate these effects to restore symbol integrity at the detector. Given Data / Assumptions: Channel characteristics may vary with temperature, load, or loop length. Receiver needs to maintain low error rates over time. Concept / Approach: An adaptive equalizer updates its filter coefficients dynamically based on error signals (e.g., from training sequences or decision-directed feedback). This allows continuous compensation as conditions change, unlike fixed “compromise” settings that only suit an average case. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) During training, the modem sends a known sequence; the receiver estimates channel response. 2) The equalizer adjusts coefficients to minimize error (e.g., LMS/recursive algorithms). 3) In steady state, decision-directed adaptation tracks slow drifts in the channel. 4) Result: improved eye opening and reduced intersymbol interference. Verification / Alternative check: Constellation diagrams show tighter clusters after equalization; bit error rate (BER) improves compared to an uncompensated channel or a fixed compromise equalizer. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Impairment equalizer/statistical equalizer: nonstandard terms in this context. Compromise equalizer: fixed setting chosen for typical loops; less effective as conditions vary. None: incorrect because adaptive equalizers are the standard solution. Common Pitfalls: Confusing echo cancellers with equalizers; assuming a one-time calibration suffices on all lines; neglecting training duration impacts on startup latency. Final Answer: Adaptive equalizer

Question 16

To efficiently support many online teleprocessing users on large host systems, which system designs are typically developed and integrated?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Teleprocessing involves many remote users interacting with centralized applications. Scaling such environments requires improvements across connectivity, CPU scheduling, and memory management so that users receive responsive service even under heavy, diverse workloads. Given Data / Assumptions: Large multi-user hosts handle concurrent sessions. Users connect over networks with variable latency and throughput. Resource contention must be controlled to maintain responsiveness. Concept / Approach: Communication systems provide robust networking stacks, terminal support, and session control. Multiprogramming allows many processes to share CPU by time slicing and prioritization. Virtual storage (virtual memory) decouples logical address space from physical RAM, enabling larger working sets and isolation between users and applications. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Improve connectivity: adopt reliable communication subsystems (protocol stacks, I/O drivers, buffers). 2) Increase concurrency: employ multiprogramming to schedule many user tasks fairly. 3) Expand memory utility: use virtual storage to prevent thrashing and enable isolation. 4) Integrate: tune kernel parameters and queues so all three components cooperate under load. Verification / Alternative check: System metrics show higher session counts, better average response times, and reduced swap/queue delays when communications, scheduling, and memory subsystems are jointly engineered for teleprocessing workloads. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Any single component alone cannot deliver scalable multi-user performance. “None” is incorrect; all listed components are standard pillars of scalable host design. Common Pitfalls: Tuning one subsystem while neglecting the others; over-committing sessions without adequate memory; ignoring network back-pressure and buffer sizing that affect end-to-end latency. Final Answer: All of the above

Question 17

A classic batch processing terminal is designed for offline job submission/output. Which component would such a terminal typically NOT include?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Batch processing historically separated job preparation from job execution. Terminals in this context served as peripheral stations to submit decks (cards) and collect printed output while the central mainframe performed computation. Given Data / Assumptions: Terminals are not general-purpose computers. They provide I/O devices to feed and retrieve batch jobs. Concept / Approach: A batch terminal usually includes input devices (card reader/punch) and output (line printer) but lacks an independent CPU capable of executing arbitrary programs. Computation occurs at the host; the terminal is essentially a remote I/O station. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Identify terminal functions: submit jobs, receive listings. 2) Map devices: card reader/punch for job decks; line printer for results. 3) Exclude CPU: processing is centralized on the mainframe. 4) Conclude the CPU is not part of a classic batch terminal. Verification / Alternative check: Historic system diagrams show Remote Job Entry (RJE) stations with readers/printers connected to the host; logic in the station is minimal, focused on device control rather than compute. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Card reader/punch: essential for job submission in card-based workflows. Line printer: essential for receiving printed output. None: incorrect because the CPU is indeed not present. Common Pitfalls: Confusing an intelligent workstation with a batch terminal; assuming every “terminal” contains a CPU comparable to a computer—batch terminals were peripheral I/O stations. Final Answer: CPU

Question 18

Which device operates across both the Data Link (Layer 2) and Network (Layer 3) layers, combining bridging with routing capabilities?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Network devices are categorized by the highest OSI layer at which they make forwarding decisions. Some hybrid devices can bridge some traffic and route other traffic, providing flexible segmentation and interconnection in complex LAN/WAN designs. Given Data / Assumptions: We need a device that can forward on MAC addresses (Layer 2) and also on IP/network addresses (Layer 3). Bridging is used within broadcast domains; routing moves traffic between subnets. Concept / Approach: A brouter (bridge + router) can act as a bridge for non-routable or certain protocol frames while routing routable protocols based on Layer-3 headers. This dual capability allows gradual migration and nuanced control over traffic flows in mixed environments. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Identify Layer-2 function: learning MACs and forwarding frames within a LAN segment. 2) Identify Layer-3 function: examining network headers and forwarding between subnets. 3) Select the device that performs both: the brouter. Verification / Alternative check: Legacy multi-protocol networks used brouters to bridge non-IP traffic (e.g., AppleTalk/NetBEUI) while routing IP, reducing broadcast domains without breaking non-routable services. Why Other Options Are Wrong: NIC: operates at Layers 1–2 for a host; not a forwarding device. Bridge: Layer 2 only. Router: Layer 3 only. None: incorrect because a brouter exists for this purpose. Common Pitfalls: Assuming switches (Layer 2) are the same as routers; overlooking hybrid devices in mixed-protocol environments; forgetting that modern multilayer switches integrate L2/L3 but the classic term for a combined function is “brouter.” Final Answer: Brouter

Question 19

In classful IPv4 addressing, what is the valid first-octet range that identifies a Class B network block?

Accepted Answer

Introduction: Classful IPv4 addressing historically divided the address space into fixed-sized classes (A, B, C, D, E) based on the first octet. Although classless routing (CIDR) is standard today, many networking exams still ask you to recall the legacy class ranges. This item checks whether you remember the specific first-octet window for Class B networks. Given Data / Assumptions: IPv4 addresses are 32 bits, shown as four decimal octets. We only need the first-octet range associated with “Class B.” Loopback (127.x.x.x) is a special case and not part of normal unicast ranges. Concept / Approach: In classful addressing, the first octet determines the class: Class A = 1–126, Class B = 128–191, Class C = 192–223, Class D (multicast) = 224–239, and Class E (experimental) = 240–255. The binary prefix for Class B is “10xxxxxx,” which maps to decimal 128–191 inclusive. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Recall classful boundaries: A=1–126, B=128–191, C=192–223.2) Identify the required set for Class B: 128 through 191 inclusive.3) Match the option that exactly reproduces this range. Verification / Alternative check: Converting 128 to binary gives 10000000 and 191 gives 10111111; both begin with 10, confirming Class B. The 127.x.x.x block is reserved (loopback), so it is not a valid Class A host range nor part of Class B. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 128–255: includes Classes C, D, and E. 1–127: mainly Class A plus loopback (127). 192–223: this is Class C. 127–191: starts at loopback (127), which is not a valid network range. Common Pitfalls: Mixing up Class B with Class C; forgetting that 127 is reserved for loopback and not counted within Class A usable ranges. Final Answer: 128–191.

Question 20

Layering and X.25 basics: identify the one incorrect statement about X.25 layers, OSI layer names, and error handling responsibilities.

Accepted Answer

Introduction: Networking exams often test whether you can keep straight the relationships among the OSI model, X.25’s three-layer view (Physical, Data Link, Packet/Network), and which layer performs which function (like error detection). This question asks you to pick the single incorrect statement from a set that otherwise sounds plausible. Given Data / Assumptions: X.25 defines a three-layer architecture: Physical (X.21), Data Link (LAPB), and Network (PLP). OSI layers from bottom to top are: Physical (1), Data Link (2), Network (3), Transport (4), Session (5), Presentation (6), Application (7). Typical link-layer frames include error-detection fields (e.g., CRC) to catch physical-layer errors. Concept / Approach: Check each statement against canonical definitions. Confirm that X.25 indeed references three layers; verify that layer 2 is Data Link; remember that the OSI 4th layer is Transport, not Session; and recall that data-link error detection is explicitly designed to catch bit-level corruption introduced on the physical medium. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Option A: Correct — X.25 uses a three-layer stack up to the network level.2) Option B: Correct — layer 2 is Data Link.3) Option C: Correct — CRC/FCS in Data Link detects physical-layer bit errors.4) Option D: Incorrect — in OSI, layer 4 is Transport, while Session is layer 5. Verification / Alternative check: Any standard OSI table will show Transport at layer 4 and Session at layer 5, confirming that calling the fourth layer “Session” is wrong. Why Other Options Are Wrong (as the incorrect choice): A, B, C are accurate statements and align with textbook definitions. E (None of the above) would claim there is no incorrect option, which is false because D is incorrect. Common Pitfalls: Mixing up Session and Transport layer names; assuming that “None of the above” is a safe pick when one statement is clearly wrong. Final Answer: The fourth OSI layer is Transport, not Session, so the incorrect statement is “The fourth layer … is the session layer.”

Networking Questions