Q: In a distributed network topology, which configuration routes all data and control traffic through a single central computer or hub?

Introduction / Context: Network topology describes how nodes connect and how data flows. Recognizing the characteristics of common topologies is essential for designing, troubleshooting, and optimizing local networks. A topology with a central node through which all traffic passes has distinct advantages and failure modes. Given Data / Assumptions: The question asks for a configuration where a central device is the hub of all communication. We consider logical/physical topologies typical of LANs. Examples include star, bus, ring, and point-to-point. Concept / Approach: In a star topology, all nodes connect to a central hub/switch. Every frame passes through this center, which can filter, forward, or broadcast frames as needed. This contrasts with bus (a shared backbone), ring (token/round-robin path), and point-to-point (a single dedicated link) topologies. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify topology requirement: central computer/hub routes all traffic.Map requirement to star topology architecture.Eliminate bus (shared medium) and ring (sequential pass), and P2P (only two nodes).Select “star network”. Verification / Alternative check: Observe typical Ethernet with a central switch: end stations plug into a switch in a hub-and-spoke pattern—functionally a star. Removing the switch disrupts all communications, illustrating dependency on the center. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Bus: All nodes tap into the same backbone; no central router for each exchange. Ring: Traffic circulates around the ring; not through a single central node. Point-to-point: Only two endpoints; no central hub at all. Common Pitfalls: Confusing logical and physical topologies; for example, logical rings running over a physical star (FDDI/Token Ring with MAUs) still do not route via a single centralized computer. Final Answer: star network

Q: In data communications, which device performs both modulation and demodulation functions to interface digital equipment with analog transmission channels?

Introduction / Context: Many legacy and some current communication links carry analog waveforms over copper or radio, yet endpoint computers produce digital bits. A device is needed to convert (modulate) outgoing bits into analog signals and to recover (demodulate) incoming bits from those signals. This conversion underpins dial-up, DSL variants, and some radio systems. Given Data / Assumptions: Endpoints are digital (computers, routers). The channel is analog bandpass (telephone line, RF link). We seek a single device performing modulation and demodulation. Concept / Approach: A modem (MOdulator/DEModulator) maps digital symbols to analog waveforms (for example, QAM) and reconstructs them at the receiver with synchronization and equalization. Other listed terms do not perform this waveform conversion: a multiplexer combines channels, a gateway translates protocols/routing domains, and protocols are rule sets, not hardware devices. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify need: digital-to-analog and analog-to-digital interface.Associate with the device name that encapsulates both functions: modem.Eliminate non-converting entities (protocols, gateway, multiplexer).Select “modem”. Verification / Alternative check: Review dial-up standards like V.34/V.90 using QAM/Trellis coding: the hardware at each end is a modem handling symbol mapping and recovery. DSL CPE similarly modulates/demodulates over copper using DMT. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Protocols: Define communication rules; not a device. Gateway: Translates address/protocol domains; does not modulate waveforms. Multiplexer: Aggregates multiple signals; no baseband-to-passband mapping. Common Pitfalls: Confusing modulation/demodulation with mere encoding (for example, line coding), or assuming multiplexers inherently perform conversion—they do not. Final Answer: modem

Q: If a serial link uses 10 bits to represent each character (including start/stop/parity), how many characters per second can be transmitted at 1200 bits per second (bps)?

Introduction / Context: Asynchronous serial communications (for example, classic RS-232) transmit more than just the data bits per character. Start, stop, and optional parity bits add overhead. Computing effective characters per second from bits per second requires dividing by the total bits per character, not just the data bits. Given Data / Assumptions: Bit rate (line rate) = 1200 bps. Total bits per character, including framing = 10 bits. We assume continuous transmission with negligible inter-character gaps. Concept / Approach: The throughput in characters per second equals the line rate divided by bits per character. This simple proportionality reflects that every character consumes a fixed number of bit times on the wire. The exact composition (start/stop/parity) is irrelevant once the 10-bit total is specified. Step-by-Step Solution: characters_per_second = bit_rate / bits_per_charactercharacters_per_second = 1200 / 10characters_per_second = 120Therefore, the link carries 120 characters each second. Verification / Alternative check: Generalize the formula for any rate: at 9600 bps with 10-bit framing, you would get 960 characters per second. At 7E1 framing (1 start, 7 data, even parity, 1 stop = 10 total), the same division applies. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 12/10: Off by a factor of 10; they ignore the full line rate. 1200: Treats bps as characters per second, ignoring framing. None of the above: Incorrect because 120 is correct. Common Pitfalls: Forgetting framing overhead, mixing up bytes and characters, or assuming 8-N-1 means 8 bits total rather than 10 (it is 1 start + 8 data + 1 stop = 10). Final Answer: 120

Q: In classful IPv4 addressing, what is the default subnet mask associated with a Class C network?

Introduction / Context: Classful addressing predates CIDR and assigns default masks to address classes A, B, and C. Many certification and legacy configuration questions still refer to these defaults, so recalling them remains useful even though modern networks use variable-length subnet masks with CIDR notation. Given Data / Assumptions: We are referencing historical classful IPv4 defaults. Class C addresses span 192.0.0.0 through 223.255.255.255. The question seeks the default mask, not a custom subnet. Concept / Approach: Class C allocates 24 bits to the network and 8 bits to hosts by default. The corresponding dotted-decimal mask is 255.255.255.0. Class B and A defaults are 255.255.0.0 and 255.0.0.0 respectively. The host 127.0.0.1 is a loopback address, not a mask, and is included as a distractor. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify class: C → /24 network prefix.Convert /24 to dotted decimal: 255.255.255.0.Confirm host bits: 8 bits → up to 254 usable host addresses per network.Select 255.255.255.0 as the answer. Verification / Alternative check: Recall that /24 equals 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 in binary, matching 255.255.255.0. Compare with Class B’s /16 (255.255.0.0) and Class A’s /8 (255.0.0.0) to confirm consistency. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 255.255.0.0: This is the Class B default mask. 255.0.0.0: This is the Class A default mask. 127.0.0.1: Loopback address, not a subnet mask. None of the above: Incorrect because 255.255.255.0 is correct. Common Pitfalls: Confusing modern CIDR with classful defaults and misidentifying 127.0.0.1 as a mask instead of a host address used for loopback testing. Final Answer: 255.255.255.0

Q: In Internet services, which well-known TCP port number is assigned to NNTP (Network News Transfer Protocol) used by Usenet news servers?

Introduction / Context: Many application protocols are associated with well-known TCP or UDP port numbers. Recognizing these mappings helps with firewall rules, troubleshooting connectivity, and interpreting network scans. NNTP, which underpins Usenet news distribution and reading, has a long-established default port. Given Data / Assumptions: We are concerned with standard, unsecured NNTP. Transport is TCP. Alternate secure variants (for example, NNTPS over 563) are not the subject of this question. Concept / Approach: NNTP uses TCP port 119 for traditional connections. For comparison, HTTP uses 80, finger uses 79, and Gopher (historical) uses 70. Secure NNTP commonly uses TCP 563. Knowing these numbers by heart is common in networking exams and is valuable when configuring network devices. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the protocol: NNTP.Recall standard port: TCP 119 for NNTP.Eliminate popular but unrelated ports: 80 (HTTP), 79 (finger), 70 (Gopher).Select 119. Verification / Alternative check: Use tools like 'telnet server 119' or 'nc server 119' (if NNTP is enabled) to observe the NNTP greeting banner, confirming the port association in practice. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 80: HTTP, not NNTP. 79: Finger protocol. 70: Gopher protocol. None of the above: Incorrect because 119 is correct. Common Pitfalls: Confusing NNTP with SMTP (25) or POP3 (110) due to all being message-related protocols; each has distinct port assignments. Final Answer: 119

Q: On IPv4 enterprise networks, which service most effectively minimizes manual TCP/IP configuration errors by automatically leasing addresses and related parameters to clients?

Introduction / Context: Manual IP configuration leads to duplicate addresses, wrong masks, and incorrect gateway/DNS settings. Automating the assignment of IP parameters reduces help-desk load and speeds up client provisioning. This question examines which common infrastructure service directly addresses those problems. Given Data / Assumptions: Clients use IPv4 and need IP address, subnet mask, default gateway, DNS, and possibly other options. We seek a service that dynamically assigns and manages these settings. Legacy name-resolution components (for example, WINS) are present as distractors. Concept / Approach: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) servers lease IP addresses and supply options like mask, gateway, DNS, NTP, and more. They prevent conflicts by allocating unique addresses from scopes and reclaiming unused leases. WINS and WINS Proxy relate to NetBIOS name resolution and do not assign IP settings. A PDC (in classic Windows NT domains) provides authentication services, not IP address management. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the root issue: configuration errors due to manual IP settings.Map solution to DHCP, which automates IP and option delivery.Eliminate WINS/WINS Proxy (name resolution only) and PDC (authentication).Select “DHCP Server”. Verification / Alternative check: Deploy a DHCP scope and confirm clients obtain correct IP, mask, gateway, and DNS automatically with 'ipconfig /all' or 'nmcli dev show'. Conflicts and typos disappear when leases are centrally managed. Why Other Options Are Wrong: WINS Server: Resolves NetBIOS names; no address leasing. WINS Proxy: Forwards NetBIOS name queries across subnets; not IP configuration. PDC: Domain authentication; not network-layer addressing. Common Pitfalls: Assuming DNS or WINS handle addressing; they map names to addresses, but only DHCP assigns addresses dynamically. Final Answer: DHCP Server

Q: On a public switched telephone network using a 4800 bps modem, the bit error probability is 10^-3. Without any error detection, what is the approximate residual frame error rate for 9-bit frames (i.e., probability that a frame is received with one o…

Introduction / Context: This problem checks understanding of how independent bit errors aggregate into a frame error rate when no error detection or correction is present. The key idea is that a frame is in error if any bit within that frame is flipped during transmission. Given Data / Assumptions: Bit error probability p = 10^-3 on a typical public telephone line with a 4800 bps modem. Frame size = 9 bits. Bit errors are independent and identically distributed. No error detection; any corrupted frame goes undetected (residual frame error = probability of at least one bit error). Concept / Approach: The probability that a frame is received correctly equals the probability that all bits are correct. For independent bits, that is (1 - p)^n, where n is the number of bits in the frame. The frame error probability is then 1 - (1 - p)^n. Step-by-Step Solution: Step 1: Identify parameters: p = 0.001, n = 9.Step 2: Compute correct-frame probability: (1 - p)^n = (0.999)^9.Step 3: Evaluate numerically or approximately: (0.999)^9 ≈ 0.991.Step 4: Frame error probability = 1 - 0.991 ≈ 0.009. Verification / Alternative check: Using the small-p approximation for at least one error: 1 - (1 - p)^n ≈ n * p for n * p ≪ 1. Here, n * p = 9 * 0.001 = 0.009, which matches the exact computation closely, validating the result. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 0.003: Corresponds to about 3 errors per 1000 bits, not per 9-bit frame. 0.991 and 0.999: These are probabilities of a correct frame (approximate) or of no error, not residual error. None of the above: Incorrect since 0.009 matches the correct evaluation. Common Pitfalls: Confusing bit error rate with frame error rate, and forgetting that any single bit flip corrupts the entire frame when no detection is present. Final Answer: 0.009

Q: When a host pings the loopback address (for example, 127.0.0.1 in IPv4), where does the packet actually travel in the TCP/IP stack?

Introduction / Context: This question targets understanding of the loopback interface. The loopback address is a logical address used by a host to send IP packets to itself for testing the local TCP/IP stack without involving any external network hardware or cabling. Given Data / Assumptions: Loopback in IPv4 commonly uses 127.0.0.0/8 (typically 127.0.0.1). No physical network interface is required for loopback delivery. The operating system implements a virtual loopback interface in the IP stack. Concept / Approach: Pinging the loopback address exercises the local network stack: the packet descends from application (ping) through ICMP over IP, is directed to the loopback interface, and then is returned back up the stack to be processed locally. No external transmission takes place, and link-layer hardware is not involved. Step-by-Step Solution: Step 1: ICMP Echo Request is generated by the ping application.Step 2: The destination IP is a loopback address, so the IP layer routes it internally to the loopback interface.Step 3: The packet goes down the stack to IP for local handling, bypassing any physical NIC.Step 4: An ICMP Echo Reply is generated locally and delivered up the stack to the originating process. Verification / Alternative check: Disabling the physical NIC does not prevent a successful ping to 127.0.0.1, which confirms that no external path is used. Why Other Options Are Wrong: On the network / Across the wire: Loopback never leaves the host. Through a loopback dongle: That is a hardware test tool, unrelated to IP loopback. None of the above: Incorrect because the internal down-and-up stack path is exactly what happens. Common Pitfalls: Assuming loopback requires an active NIC or cabling. It does not; it is entirely virtual within the TCP/IP stack. Final Answer: Down through the layers of the IP architecture and then up the layers again

Question 1

Within the TCP/IP protocol suite, what is the primary role of ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) is a core part of the Internet Protocol suite. It is not used for data transfer like TCP or UDP, but plays a control and diagnostic role in networking. Given Data / Assumptions: We are working in the TCP/IP model. The protocol in question is ICMP, not ICMPv6 or other variants. Concept / Approach: ICMP is used to send control and error messages. For example, it communicates network unreachability, packet loss, or TTL expiration. Tools like ping and traceroute depend on ICMP. Step-by-Step Solution: Ping sends ICMP Echo Request.Target replies with Echo Reply.Routers use ICMP Time Exceeded messages for traceroute.Errors like 'Destination Unreachable' are also carried by ICMP. Verification / Alternative check: Check with Wireshark packet captures to see ICMP message types exchanged during ping/traceroute. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Option A: describes ARP, not ICMP. Option B: describes FTP, not ICMP. Option C: too vague; monitoring tools use ICMP but monitoring is not its primary definition. None: incorrect since Option D is correct. Common Pitfalls: Confusing ICMP with ARP or SNMP. Assuming ICMP is a transport protocol—it is actually encapsulated inside IP packets. Final Answer: A protocol that handles error and control messages.

Question 2

In terminal communication, if both local echo and remote echo are enabled, how many times will each typed character appear on the user's screen?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: In data communications, echo refers to the immediate display of typed characters. Understanding local and remote echo behavior is essential for diagnosing duplicate or missing characters in terminal sessions. Given Data / Assumptions: Local echo means the terminal itself displays characters as typed. Remote echo means the host echoes characters back to the terminal. Both are enabled simultaneously. Concept / Approach: If both local and remote echo are active, each keystroke is displayed twice: once by the local terminal and once by the remote host. This causes duplication, making text appear doubled. Step-by-Step Solution: Type 'A'.Local echo shows 'A' instantly.Remote host sends back 'A', which is displayed again.Final result: 'AA' appears on screen. Verification / Alternative check: Test with telnet where echo settings can be toggled. Observe output with only local, only remote, and both enabled. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Once: true only if one echo (local or remote) is active. Three times: excessive; only two echoes occur. Never: false; at least one echo always shows text. None: incorrect because 'twice' is correct. Common Pitfalls: Assuming both echoes cancel each other—they do not, they duplicate output. Confusing echo issues with line buffering. Final Answer: twice.

Question 3

In computer networking, which transmission medium typically provides the slowest data rate among common choices (twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and microwave links)?

Accepted Answer

Introduction: In data communications and computer networking, different physical media support very different bandwidths and noise characteristics. This question tests your understanding of how common media—twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and microwave links—compare in terms of typical (not theoretical peak) throughput and the factors that limit their speed. Given Data / Assumptions: We compare widely deployed, standard-quality implementations of each medium under practical conditions. Focus is on typical sustained data rates achievable in enterprise/ISP deployments, not absolute laboratory records. No special shielding or exotic variants are assumed beyond what is commonplace. Concept / Approach: Transmission speed depends on bandwidth, attenuation, noise immunity, and how well the medium supports high-frequency signaling. The more the medium resists interference and preserves signal integrity over distance, the higher the feasible data rate. Fiber-optic media carry light, are immune to electromagnetic interference, and support extremely high bandwidth. Microwave links use high-frequency radio and can achieve high rates given line-of-sight and proper engineering. Coaxial cable has better shielding than simple twisted-pair and thus higher usable bandwidth. Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP), especially older categories, is the most susceptible to noise and crosstalk and therefore offers the lowest typical capacity among the listed choices. Step-by-Step Solution: Step 1: List common capabilities. Twisted-pair (Cat3–Cat5e historically) ranges from sub-Mbps (very old) to 100–1000 Mbps over limited distances; coaxial has been used for hundreds of Mbps to multi-Gbps in DOCSIS systems; fiber routinely supports multi-Gbps to Tbps; microwave backhaul often delivers hundreds of Mbps to multi-Gbps with modern radios.Step 2: Compare noise immunity. Twisted-pair is most vulnerable to electromagnetic interference and crosstalk; coaxial is shielded; fiber is immune to EMI; microwave requires careful planning but carries high symbol rates.Step 3: Infer the slowest typical medium. Given the above, twisted-pair wire offers the lowest ceiling in general, especially when considering legacy and broadly deployed categories.Step 4: Select the option matching the slowest medium: 'Twisted-pair wire'. Verification / Alternative check: Check practical deployments: enterprise backbone links use fiber, ISP last-mile over coax can exceed 1 Gbps, and microwave backhaul commonly carries hundreds of Mbps. In contrast, twisted-pair links are often limited by category, distance, and noise, confirming it as the slowest among the options. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Fiber-optic cable: Very high bandwidth and EMI immunity; typically the fastest option. Microwave links: Can deliver high rates with line-of-sight engineering; not the slowest. Coaxial cable: Better shielding than twisted-pair; supports higher practical data rates. Infrared links: Not among the listed core wired/wireless backbones in this comparison and, in many uses, either short-range or specialized; included as a distractor. Common Pitfalls: Confusing “modern Ethernet over Cat6/Cat6a” with all twisted-pair; while newer categories are fast, the question compares broad, common media classes historically and practically. Also, do not assume wireless is always slower; modern microwave backhaul can be very fast. Final Answer: Twisted-pair wire

Question 4

In data communication terminology, which type of channel is characterized by relatively slow data transfer rates compared to voiceband, wideband, and broadband channels?

Accepted Answer

Introduction: Communication channels are often categorized by the range of frequencies they support and the corresponding data rates they can carry. This question checks your understanding of the standard terminology—narrowband, voiceband, wideband, and broadband—and which of these offers relatively slow data transmission. Given Data / Assumptions: The comparison is conceptual and based on conventional definitions used in data communications. Data rate correlates with usable bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio for a given modulation scheme. No exotic or proprietary enhancements are assumed. Concept / Approach: Narrowband channels occupy a small frequency range and consequently support lower symbol rates and throughput. Voiceband typically refers to the approximate 300 Hz to 3400 Hz band historically used for telephony modems, yielding modest data rates. Wideband and broadband describe progressively larger bandwidth allocations, enabling higher possible data rates when paired with suitable modulation and coding. Step-by-Step Solution: Step 1: Rank channel types by bandwidth. Narrowband < voiceband < wideband < broadband (in general usage).Step 2: Link bandwidth to throughput using the idea that achievable data rate increases with usable bandwidth and SNR (as suggested by Shannon's capacity concept, C ~ B * log2(1 + SNR)).Step 3: Identify the slowest. Narrowband, by definition, offers the least bandwidth and therefore the lowest typical data rates.Step 4: Select 'Narrowband channel' as the correct answer. Verification / Alternative check: Historically, narrowband systems (e.g., legacy signaling channels, low-rate telemetry) operate far below the rates of voiceband modems, while modern wideband/broadband systems enable high-speed data and multimedia transport. This aligns with the selection of narrowband as relatively slow. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Wideband channel: Larger bandwidth than voiceband/narrowband; supports higher rates. Voiceband channel: Traditionally limited to telephony audio range; faster than narrowband but slower than wideband/broadband. Broadband channel: Very wide bandwidth; supports high data rates by design. Baseband channel: A signaling method on a medium; in many systems (e.g., Ethernet), baseband can be high-rate; not inherently the slowest. Common Pitfalls: Assuming 'voiceband' is the slowest because of dial-up history. While voiceband is limited, 'narrowband' is the more restrictive term encompassing even lower-rate channels. Final Answer: Narrowband channel

Question 5

In computer architecture for mainframe and large enterprise systems, what is a “front-end processor” and what function does it primarily serve?

Accepted Answer

Introduction: In classic mainframe and enterprise networking environments, organizations connected many remote terminals and lines to a central host. Managing thousands of sessions, protocols, and line controls can burden the host. The concept of a front-end processor (FEP) emerged to address this scaling problem. Given Data / Assumptions: Context is traditional mainframe/mini environments with numerous terminals and communication lines. Focus is on communications control, protocol handling, and line management. We consider the canonical architectural role described in systems literature. Concept / Approach: A front-end processor is a dedicated computer—often a minicomputer or specialized controller—positioned between the communications network and the host (mainframe). It terminates lines, handles low-level protocols, buffers data, performs error checking, and multiplexes streams, leaving the host free to run applications and core OS services. Step-by-Step Solution: Step 1: Identify the performance bottleneck. Without an FEP, the mainframe must service interrupts, line discipline, and session control for many connections.Step 2: Introduce the FEP. Place a specialized system at the network edge to aggregate terminals and links.Step 3: Assign tasks to the FEP. Line control, buffering, protocol conversion/termination, error recovery, and session setup/teardown.Step 4: Benefit to the host. The mainframe focuses on application processing and higher-level OS work rather than low-level I/O chores.Step 5: Conclude. A FEP is best described as a minicomputer or specialized system that relieves the mainframe of communications control functions. Verification / Alternative check: Historical systems such as IBM's 3705/3725 Communications Controllers exemplify FEPs, confirming their role as communications offload devices rather than user PCs or generic kernel CPUs. Why Other Options Are Wrong: A user's personal computer: Submits jobs but does not offload line control for all terminals; role is unrelated. A processor executing OS kernel instructions: That describes part of the mainframe itself, not a separate communications controller. A preliminary batch pre-sorter: Job scheduling may occur elsewhere, but that is not the FEP's defining function. None of the above: Incorrect because option C correctly defines the FEP. Common Pitfalls: Assuming 'front-end' refers to user interface machines or GUI clients. In classic networking, 'front-end' is specifically about communications offload near the network 'front.' Final Answer: A minicomputer or specialized system that offloads communications control from the mainframe

Question 6

In the X.121 addressing scheme for public data networks, how many digits of the Data Network Identification Code (DNIC) represent the country (Data Country Code)?

Accepted Answer

Introduction: The X.121 addressing plan was used in public packet-switched data networks (such as older X.25 services). At the core of X.121 is the Data Network Identification Code (DNIC), which identifies both the country and the specific public data network. This question probes whether you know how many leading digits of the DNIC designate the country itself. Given Data / Assumptions: Addressing standard: X.121 for public data networks. DNIC length: 4 digits total. We must determine how many of those four digits are assigned to the country code portion. Concept / Approach: Within the DNIC, the first part is the Data Country Code (DCC), and the remaining part identifies the public data network within that country. Recognizing this split allows you to pinpoint the number of digits tied specifically to the country. Step-by-Step Solution: Step 1: Recall DNIC structure. DNIC consists of 4 digits total.Step 2: Identify which digits map to the country. The first three digits constitute the Data Country Code (DCC).Step 3: Identify the network digit. The fourth digit identifies the specific public data network within the country.Step 4: Conclude. Therefore, the number of digits of the DNIC that identify the country is three (the first three digits). Verification / Alternative check: Example patterns and standards documentation consistently show DNIC = DCC (3 digits) + Network (1 digit). Hence, the country is encoded in the first three digits, verifying the answer. Why Other Options Are Wrong: First four digits: That would include the network identifier, not just the country. First five digits: DNIC has only four digits; five is impossible. First six digits: Exceeds DNIC length and conflates DNIC with the remainder of the X.121 address. None of the above: Incorrect because 'first three digits' is standard. Common Pitfalls: Confusing the entire X.121 address (which can be much longer) with the DNIC subfield, and assuming all leading digits indicate country. Only the first three digits of the DNIC are the country code; the fourth digit is the network code. Final Answer: First three digits

Question 7

In wireless local area networks (WLANs), which of the following is not a disadvantage when compared with wired Ethernet—considering throughput, reliability, and radio interference?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Wireless LANs (WLANs) provide mobility and flexible deployment, but they also face well-known trade-offs relative to wired Ethernet. This question tests whether you can distinguish real disadvantages (such as lower throughput, higher error rates, and radio interference) from distractors and identify the option that is not a disadvantage. Given Data / Assumptions: We are comparing typical enterprise/home WLANs (for example, IEEE 802.11) with wired Ethernet (for example, IEEE 802.3). Environment includes common issues like attenuation, multipath, adjacent/co-channel interference, and shared-medium contention. Throughput referenced is effective user throughput, not only the PHY rate printed on the box. Concept / Approach: Against wired networks, WLANs routinely exhibit: (1) lower effective throughput because half-duplex CSMA/CA and overhead (headers, control frames, retries) reduce usable data rate; (2) higher error rates because radio links are susceptible to noise, fading, and blockage; and (3) interference from overlapping access points or neighboring devices using the same spectrum (microwaves, Bluetooth, Zigbee). Therefore, each listed item is a true disadvantage. The correct choice for “which is not a disadvantage” is that none of them qualify as non-disadvantages—hence “None of the above”. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify each statement and ask: does this occur in real WLANs?Slower throughput vs. wired: yes, due to half-duplex, overhead, contention.Higher error rate: yes, radio links face SNR variation and multipath.Interference: yes, shared unlicensed bands create contention.Conclusion: all are genuine disadvantages → select “None of the above”. Verification / Alternative check: Measure TCP/UDP throughput on a typical 802.11 network versus a gigabit Ethernet link; verify increased retransmissions and lower goodput on Wi-Fi under contention or at range. Spectrum analysis will reveal interferers, confirming the interference claim. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Higher error rate: This does happen due to the wireless medium. Interference among computers: Co-channel and adjacent-channel interference are common. Slower data transmission: Effective throughput is typically lower than wired. All of the above: The prompt asks for what is not a disadvantage; saying “All of the above” would assert they are all disadvantages, but does not answer the “not” criterion. Common Pitfalls: Confusing PHY rate (for example, 300 Mbps) with real application throughput; ignoring effects of distance, walls, and contention; or assuming modern Wi-Fi eliminates interference entirely—it does not. Final Answer: None of the above (all listed items are genuine disadvantages of WLANs)

Question 8

In optical fiber communications, avalanche photodiode (APD) receivers can detect valid data hits when approximately how many photons are received per bit interval?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Avalanche photodiodes (APDs) are semiconductor light detectors used in optical fiber links to sense very weak optical signals. By operating with internal gain (avalanche multiplication), an APD can register the presence of a small number of photons during a bit interval. Understanding rough photon-count sensitivities helps learners compare device classes (PIN vs. APD) and appreciate link budget design. Given Data / Assumptions: The question seeks an order-of-magnitude photon count associated with reliable hit detection in an APD receiver. We consider typical telecom wavelengths and realistic bit intervals, not single-photon quantum detectors. Receiver includes practical noise sources (dark current, thermal noise) and a decision threshold. Concept / Approach: An APD provides internal gain M (for example, 10–100), improving sensitivity compared to a PIN diode. While exact sensitivity depends on data rate, wavelength, noise bandwidth, temperature, and coding, educational references often quote that APD-based receivers can detect on the order of ~100 photons per bit (sometimes lower with coding and optimal conditions). Hence, among the given choices, 100 photons is the best representative threshold for a viable hit at low BER in a simplified exam context. Step-by-Step Solution: Recognize that lower photon counts require higher internal gain and careful noise control.Compare APDs to PIN diodes: APDs achieve better sensitivity due to multiplication.Select the smallest plausible count listed that aligns with educational norms: 100 photons.Note that real designs use link budgets in dB, not photon counts, but the mapping is conceptual. Verification / Alternative check: Convert receiver sensitivity (for example, −40 dBm at a certain BER) to photons per bit using energy-per-photon E = h * c / λ and bit time T = 1 / R. This cross-check shows that photon counts on the order of tens to hundreds per bit are consistent for APD-based designs at moderate rates. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 200/300/400 photons: Possible in noisier or higher-rate scenarios, but do not capture the lower limit advantage of APDs emphasized in textbook comparisons. None of the above: There is a plausible correct value listed (100 photons). Common Pitfalls: Treating the quoted number as universal; in practice, coding gain, temperature, and target BER shift required photon counts. Always refer to datasheets and system link budgets for exact figures. Final Answer: 100 photons

Question 9

In telecommunications, the term “carrier” refers to which of the following definitions in the context of modulation and transmission?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Analog and digital communication systems often use a high-frequency sinusoid called a carrier. Information (voice, data, video) is imposed on this carrier via modulation so it can propagate efficiently over media like air, coax, or fiber and be separated from noise and adjacent channels by filtering. Given Data / Assumptions: We are discussing baseband-to-passband conversion using a carrier wave. Modulation may be amplitude, frequency, phase, or digital variants (ASK, FSK, PSK, QAM). Other options describe different networking terms. Concept / Approach: A carrier is a continuous wave (usually sinusoidal) with constant amplitude and frequency in the absence of modulation. By varying one or more parameters of this carrier according to the message signal, energy is shifted around the carrier frequency so that transmission and reception become practical using bandpass channels and tuned circuits. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the role: a high-frequency sinusoid that “carries” information when modulated.Match to definition: continuous frequency suitable for modulation.Eliminate terms unrelated to modulation (for example, bus, network).Select the definition that explicitly mentions being impressed with a second signal. Verification / Alternative check: Consider AM radio: a program (message) modulates a carrier (for example, 1 MHz). A receiver tunes to that carrier and demodulates to recover the baseband audio—demonstrating the definition in practice. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Common connection of devices: describes a bus. Attempting to use the same channel simultaneously: describes a collision or contention. Interconnected functional units providing service: describes a network. Common Pitfalls: Confusing “carrier” with “carrier sense” in CSMA/CD, or with a telecommunications service provider (a “carrier” in business terms) rather than the physical signal. Final Answer: a continuous frequency capable of being modulated or impressed with a second signal

Question 10

In a distributed network topology, which configuration routes all data and control traffic through a single central computer or hub?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Network topology describes how nodes connect and how data flows. Recognizing the characteristics of common topologies is essential for designing, troubleshooting, and optimizing local networks. A topology with a central node through which all traffic passes has distinct advantages and failure modes. Given Data / Assumptions: The question asks for a configuration where a central device is the hub of all communication. We consider logical/physical topologies typical of LANs. Examples include star, bus, ring, and point-to-point. Concept / Approach: In a star topology, all nodes connect to a central hub/switch. Every frame passes through this center, which can filter, forward, or broadcast frames as needed. This contrasts with bus (a shared backbone), ring (token/round-robin path), and point-to-point (a single dedicated link) topologies. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify topology requirement: central computer/hub routes all traffic.Map requirement to star topology architecture.Eliminate bus (shared medium) and ring (sequential pass), and P2P (only two nodes).Select “star network”. Verification / Alternative check: Observe typical Ethernet with a central switch: end stations plug into a switch in a hub-and-spoke pattern—functionally a star. Removing the switch disrupts all communications, illustrating dependency on the center. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Bus: All nodes tap into the same backbone; no central router for each exchange. Ring: Traffic circulates around the ring; not through a single central node. Point-to-point: Only two endpoints; no central hub at all. Common Pitfalls: Confusing logical and physical topologies; for example, logical rings running over a physical star (FDDI/Token Ring with MAUs) still do not route via a single centralized computer. Final Answer: star network

Question 11

In data communications, which device performs both modulation and demodulation functions to interface digital equipment with analog transmission channels?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Many legacy and some current communication links carry analog waveforms over copper or radio, yet endpoint computers produce digital bits. A device is needed to convert (modulate) outgoing bits into analog signals and to recover (demodulate) incoming bits from those signals. This conversion underpins dial-up, DSL variants, and some radio systems. Given Data / Assumptions: Endpoints are digital (computers, routers). The channel is analog bandpass (telephone line, RF link). We seek a single device performing modulation and demodulation. Concept / Approach: A modem (MOdulator/DEModulator) maps digital symbols to analog waveforms (for example, QAM) and reconstructs them at the receiver with synchronization and equalization. Other listed terms do not perform this waveform conversion: a multiplexer combines channels, a gateway translates protocols/routing domains, and protocols are rule sets, not hardware devices. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify need: digital-to-analog and analog-to-digital interface.Associate with the device name that encapsulates both functions: modem.Eliminate non-converting entities (protocols, gateway, multiplexer).Select “modem”. Verification / Alternative check: Review dial-up standards like V.34/V.90 using QAM/Trellis coding: the hardware at each end is a modem handling symbol mapping and recovery. DSL CPE similarly modulates/demodulates over copper using DMT. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Protocols: Define communication rules; not a device. Gateway: Translates address/protocol domains; does not modulate waveforms. Multiplexer: Aggregates multiple signals; no baseband-to-passband mapping. Common Pitfalls: Confusing modulation/demodulation with mere encoding (for example, line coding), or assuming multiplexers inherently perform conversion—they do not. Final Answer: modem

Question 12

If a serial link uses 10 bits to represent each character (including start/stop/parity), how many characters per second can be transmitted at 1200 bits per second (bps)?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Asynchronous serial communications (for example, classic RS-232) transmit more than just the data bits per character. Start, stop, and optional parity bits add overhead. Computing effective characters per second from bits per second requires dividing by the total bits per character, not just the data bits. Given Data / Assumptions: Bit rate (line rate) = 1200 bps. Total bits per character, including framing = 10 bits. We assume continuous transmission with negligible inter-character gaps. Concept / Approach: The throughput in characters per second equals the line rate divided by bits per character. This simple proportionality reflects that every character consumes a fixed number of bit times on the wire. The exact composition (start/stop/parity) is irrelevant once the 10-bit total is specified. Step-by-Step Solution: characters_per_second = bit_rate / bits_per_charactercharacters_per_second = 1200 / 10characters_per_second = 120Therefore, the link carries 120 characters each second. Verification / Alternative check: Generalize the formula for any rate: at 9600 bps with 10-bit framing, you would get 960 characters per second. At 7E1 framing (1 start, 7 data, even parity, 1 stop = 10 total), the same division applies. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 12/10: Off by a factor of 10; they ignore the full line rate. 1200: Treats bps as characters per second, ignoring framing. None of the above: Incorrect because 120 is correct. Common Pitfalls: Forgetting framing overhead, mixing up bytes and characters, or assuming 8-N-1 means 8 bits total rather than 10 (it is 1 start + 8 data + 1 stop = 10). Final Answer: 120

Question 13

In classful IPv4 addressing, what is the default subnet mask associated with a Class C network?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Classful addressing predates CIDR and assigns default masks to address classes A, B, and C. Many certification and legacy configuration questions still refer to these defaults, so recalling them remains useful even though modern networks use variable-length subnet masks with CIDR notation. Given Data / Assumptions: We are referencing historical classful IPv4 defaults. Class C addresses span 192.0.0.0 through 223.255.255.255. The question seeks the default mask, not a custom subnet. Concept / Approach: Class C allocates 24 bits to the network and 8 bits to hosts by default. The corresponding dotted-decimal mask is 255.255.255.0. Class B and A defaults are 255.255.0.0 and 255.0.0.0 respectively. The host 127.0.0.1 is a loopback address, not a mask, and is included as a distractor. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify class: C → /24 network prefix.Convert /24 to dotted decimal: 255.255.255.0.Confirm host bits: 8 bits → up to 254 usable host addresses per network.Select 255.255.255.0 as the answer. Verification / Alternative check: Recall that /24 equals 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 in binary, matching 255.255.255.0. Compare with Class B’s /16 (255.255.0.0) and Class A’s /8 (255.0.0.0) to confirm consistency. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 255.255.0.0: This is the Class B default mask. 255.0.0.0: This is the Class A default mask. 127.0.0.1: Loopback address, not a subnet mask. None of the above: Incorrect because 255.255.255.0 is correct. Common Pitfalls: Confusing modern CIDR with classful defaults and misidentifying 127.0.0.1 as a mask instead of a host address used for loopback testing. Final Answer: 255.255.255.0

Question 14

In Internet services, which well-known TCP port number is assigned to NNTP (Network News Transfer Protocol) used by Usenet news servers?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Many application protocols are associated with well-known TCP or UDP port numbers. Recognizing these mappings helps with firewall rules, troubleshooting connectivity, and interpreting network scans. NNTP, which underpins Usenet news distribution and reading, has a long-established default port. Given Data / Assumptions: We are concerned with standard, unsecured NNTP. Transport is TCP. Alternate secure variants (for example, NNTPS over 563) are not the subject of this question. Concept / Approach: NNTP uses TCP port 119 for traditional connections. For comparison, HTTP uses 80, finger uses 79, and Gopher (historical) uses 70. Secure NNTP commonly uses TCP 563. Knowing these numbers by heart is common in networking exams and is valuable when configuring network devices. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the protocol: NNTP.Recall standard port: TCP 119 for NNTP.Eliminate popular but unrelated ports: 80 (HTTP), 79 (finger), 70 (Gopher).Select 119. Verification / Alternative check: Use tools like 'telnet server 119' or 'nc server 119' (if NNTP is enabled) to observe the NNTP greeting banner, confirming the port association in practice. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 80: HTTP, not NNTP. 79: Finger protocol. 70: Gopher protocol. None of the above: Incorrect because 119 is correct. Common Pitfalls: Confusing NNTP with SMTP (25) or POP3 (110) due to all being message-related protocols; each has distinct port assignments. Final Answer: 119

Question 15

On IPv4 enterprise networks, which service most effectively minimizes manual TCP/IP configuration errors by automatically leasing addresses and related parameters to clients?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Manual IP configuration leads to duplicate addresses, wrong masks, and incorrect gateway/DNS settings. Automating the assignment of IP parameters reduces help-desk load and speeds up client provisioning. This question examines which common infrastructure service directly addresses those problems. Given Data / Assumptions: Clients use IPv4 and need IP address, subnet mask, default gateway, DNS, and possibly other options. We seek a service that dynamically assigns and manages these settings. Legacy name-resolution components (for example, WINS) are present as distractors. Concept / Approach: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) servers lease IP addresses and supply options like mask, gateway, DNS, NTP, and more. They prevent conflicts by allocating unique addresses from scopes and reclaiming unused leases. WINS and WINS Proxy relate to NetBIOS name resolution and do not assign IP settings. A PDC (in classic Windows NT domains) provides authentication services, not IP address management. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the root issue: configuration errors due to manual IP settings.Map solution to DHCP, which automates IP and option delivery.Eliminate WINS/WINS Proxy (name resolution only) and PDC (authentication).Select “DHCP Server”. Verification / Alternative check: Deploy a DHCP scope and confirm clients obtain correct IP, mask, gateway, and DNS automatically with 'ipconfig /all' or 'nmcli dev show'. Conflicts and typos disappear when leases are centrally managed. Why Other Options Are Wrong: WINS Server: Resolves NetBIOS names; no address leasing. WINS Proxy: Forwards NetBIOS name queries across subnets; not IP configuration. PDC: Domain authentication; not network-layer addressing. Common Pitfalls: Assuming DNS or WINS handle addressing; they map names to addresses, but only DHCP assigns addresses dynamically. Final Answer: DHCP Server

Question 16

Historically for dial-up and serial data communications, which bit rates (in bps) became the most commonly used standard speeds—among the given individual choices, which represents the widely adopted higher-rate baseline?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Serial and dial-up modems evolved through a sequence of standardized bit rates. While very low speeds enabled early data links, later standards achieved higher throughput and became the practical baseline for reliable, widespread communications before even faster protocols emerged. Recognizing these landmark rates helps make sense of legacy configurations and exam questions. Given Data / Assumptions: The options list classic discrete bps rates: 300, 1200, 2400, and 9600. We select the most commonly used higher-rate baseline that dominated general-purpose modem use for years. Context is human-to-computer dial-up and serial links prior to V.34/V.90. Concept / Approach: While 300, 1200, and 2400 bps were milestones, 9600 bps (for example, V.32) became a widely adopted standard speed across dial-up and serial console connections. It provided a practical balance between speed and line quality requirements, and many devices shipped with 9600 bps as the default console speed. Therefore, among the single-rate choices provided, 9600 best represents the commonly used higher baseline that displaced earlier, slower rates. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify progression of legacy modem standards: 300 → 1200 → 2400 → 9600 bps.Recall industry defaults (for example, network gear console ports default to 9600 bps).Select the most broadly adopted higher-rate choice: 9600.Note that later consumer modems advanced to 14.4 kbps, 28.8 kbps, and 56 kbps. Verification / Alternative check: Check router/switch console documentation and legacy modem guides showing 9600 bps as the default configuration, corroborating its widespread usage. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 300/1200/2400: Historically important but largely superseded; not the enduring higher-rate baseline. None of the above: Incorrect because 9600 is a well-known common standard speed. Common Pitfalls: Interpreting “most commonly used speeds” as a set; this question asks you to choose one rate among discrete options. In practice, environments used many rates, but 9600 became the de facto default for serial consoles and many dial-up links. Final Answer: 9600

Question 17

On a public switched telephone network using a 4800 bps modem, the bit error probability is 10^-3. Without any error detection, what is the approximate residual frame error rate for 9-bit frames (i.e., probability that a frame is received with one o…

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: This problem checks understanding of how independent bit errors aggregate into a frame error rate when no error detection or correction is present. The key idea is that a frame is in error if any bit within that frame is flipped during transmission. Given Data / Assumptions: Bit error probability p = 10^-3 on a typical public telephone line with a 4800 bps modem. Frame size = 9 bits. Bit errors are independent and identically distributed. No error detection; any corrupted frame goes undetected (residual frame error = probability of at least one bit error). Concept / Approach: The probability that a frame is received correctly equals the probability that all bits are correct. For independent bits, that is (1 - p)^n, where n is the number of bits in the frame. The frame error probability is then 1 - (1 - p)^n. Step-by-Step Solution: Step 1: Identify parameters: p = 0.001, n = 9.Step 2: Compute correct-frame probability: (1 - p)^n = (0.999)^9.Step 3: Evaluate numerically or approximately: (0.999)^9 ≈ 0.991.Step 4: Frame error probability = 1 - 0.991 ≈ 0.009. Verification / Alternative check: Using the small-p approximation for at least one error: 1 - (1 - p)^n ≈ n * p for n * p ≪ 1. Here, n * p = 9 * 0.001 = 0.009, which matches the exact computation closely, validating the result. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 0.003: Corresponds to about 3 errors per 1000 bits, not per 9-bit frame. 0.991 and 0.999: These are probabilities of a correct frame (approximate) or of no error, not residual error. None of the above: Incorrect since 0.009 matches the correct evaluation. Common Pitfalls: Confusing bit error rate with frame error rate, and forgetting that any single bit flip corrupts the entire frame when no detection is present. Final Answer: 0.009

Question 18

When a host pings the loopback address (for example, 127.0.0.1 in IPv4), where does the packet actually travel in the TCP/IP stack?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: This question targets understanding of the loopback interface. The loopback address is a logical address used by a host to send IP packets to itself for testing the local TCP/IP stack without involving any external network hardware or cabling. Given Data / Assumptions: Loopback in IPv4 commonly uses 127.0.0.0/8 (typically 127.0.0.1). No physical network interface is required for loopback delivery. The operating system implements a virtual loopback interface in the IP stack. Concept / Approach: Pinging the loopback address exercises the local network stack: the packet descends from application (ping) through ICMP over IP, is directed to the loopback interface, and then is returned back up the stack to be processed locally. No external transmission takes place, and link-layer hardware is not involved. Step-by-Step Solution: Step 1: ICMP Echo Request is generated by the ping application.Step 2: The destination IP is a loopback address, so the IP layer routes it internally to the loopback interface.Step 3: The packet goes down the stack to IP for local handling, bypassing any physical NIC.Step 4: An ICMP Echo Reply is generated locally and delivered up the stack to the originating process. Verification / Alternative check: Disabling the physical NIC does not prevent a successful ping to 127.0.0.1, which confirms that no external path is used. Why Other Options Are Wrong: On the network / Across the wire: Loopback never leaves the host. Through a loopback dongle: That is a hardware test tool, unrelated to IP loopback. None of the above: Incorrect because the internal down-and-up stack path is exactly what happens. Common Pitfalls: Assuming loopback requires an active NIC or cabling. It does not; it is entirely virtual within the TCP/IP stack. Final Answer: Down through the layers of the IP architecture and then up the layers again

Question 19

Within the TCP/IP suite, which protocol is used to transfer electronic mail messages between mail servers (host to host)?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Email delivery on the Internet relies on a standardized application-layer protocol for relaying messages between servers. This question assesses your knowledge of which TCP/IP protocol performs server-to-server mail transfer, not client retrieval. Given Data / Assumptions: We focus on the transport of messages between hosts (Mail Transfer Agent to Mail Transfer Agent). Client retrieval protocols like POP3 or IMAP are out of scope here. Standard TCP/IP protocol stack nomenclature is assumed. Concept / Approach: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is the de facto Internet standard for pushing emails between servers. Mail servers accept, relay, and deliver messages via SMTP over TCP, commonly on ports 25, 465 (with TLS), or 587 (submission). Other listed protocols serve different purposes. Step-by-Step Solution: Step 1: Identify the task: server-to-server message relay.Step 2: Map task to protocol: SMTP handles message submission and transfer between MTAs.Step 3: Eliminate distractors: FTP moves files, SNMP manages devices, RPC enables remote procedure calls.Step 4: Conclude: SMTP is correct. Verification / Alternative check: Examine a real email header: the Received lines show SMTP hops between servers, confirming SMTP usage for relay. Why Other Options Are Wrong: FTP: File transfer, not email relay. SNMP: Network monitoring and management, unrelated to mail transport. RPC: Programming abstraction for calling procedures on remote systems, not a mail protocol. None of the above: Incorrect because SMTP is the standard. Common Pitfalls: Confusing SMTP with POP3/IMAP, which are for retrieving emails from a mailbox to a client, not inter-server transport. Final Answer: SMTP

Question 20

In local area networking, which device forwards frames from one LAN segment to another LAN segment at the data link layer, enabling inter-LAN frame transmission?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: LANs are often divided into segments for performance or topology reasons. To interconnect segments while still operating at the data link layer, specific devices forward frames based on MAC addresses. This question distinguishes among common devices used in LANs and WANs. Given Data / Assumptions: OSI layer focus: data link layer (Layer 2). Goal: transmit Ethernet frames between LAN segments. MAC address learning and filtering are relevant. Concept / Approach: A bridge is a Layer-2 device that learns MAC addresses, filters traffic, and forwards frames between LAN segments. Modern Ethernet switches are multiport bridges that perform the same fundamental function. Routers operate at Layer 3 and forward packets based on IP addresses, not raw frames across broadcast domains. Repeaters regenerate signals without MAC-level forwarding logic. Modems and gateways target different layers and functions. Step-by-Step Solution: Step 1: Identify the required layer: the question says frames, which are Layer-2 units.Step 2: Map device to layer: bridges work at Layer 2 to forward frames between segments.Step 3: Exclude alternatives: routers forward packets (Layer 3), repeaters only regenerate signals, modems convert signaling for WAN access, and gateways translate protocols.Step 4: Conclude that a bridge is the correct device. Verification / Alternative check: Switches, effectively multiport bridges, routinely interconnect VLANs or segments at Layer 2, confirming the role. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Router: Packet forwarding across networks, not raw frame bridging between segments. Repeater: Bit-level regeneration only; no MAC learning. Modem: Modulation/demodulation for WAN lines, not LAN bridging. Gateway: Protocol conversion at higher layers; not strictly Layer 2 frame forwarding. Common Pitfalls: Equating any interconnection with routing. The mention of frames signals Layer 2 and therefore bridging or switching. Final Answer: Bridge

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