Process (functional) layout is typically employed under which conditions?

Introduction / Context:
Process layout (functional layout or job-shop layout) groups similar processes together—e.g., lathes in one area, mills in another. It is the opposite of product layout and suits high-variety, low-volume work.

Given Data / Assumptions:

• Jobbing or batch environment with variable routings.
• Equipment arranged by function.
• Operators with broader skill sets; higher material handling and scheduling complexity.

Concept / Approach:
With diverse products, routing flexibility is more important than flow efficiency. Functional departments allow different parts to take different paths as required. This supports customization and engineering changes at the expense of longer lead times and higher WIP than line layouts.

Step-by-Step Solution:

Verification / Alternative check:
KPIs typically show longer travel distances and queue times but greater flexibility than product layouts; this aligns with process layout characteristics.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:
Option (e) describes conditions for product (line) layout, not process layout.

Common Pitfalls:
Underestimating scheduling complexity; ignoring setup reduction opportunities; poor workplace layout causing excess movement.

Final Answer:
all of the above