Metallurgy for rails — by which steelmaking processes are rails commonly manufactured in India?

Introduction / Context:
Rail steel demands high strength, toughness, and controlled impurities to withstand repeated heavy axle loads. Historically, Indian rail manufacturing has relied on specific steelmaking processes that ensure these properties and consistent quality.

Given Data / Assumptions:

• The question references manufacturing practice in India for rail sections.
• We consider established steelmaking processes historically used for rails.

Concept / Approach:

Both the open hearth and duplex processes have been employed for producing rail steel, enabling control over composition (especially carbon and manganese) and cleanliness. While modern plants may use basic oxygen furnaces and continuous casting, exam-oriented conventional answers emphasize the coexistence of open hearth and duplex in India’s rail-making history.

Step-by-Step Solution:

Verification / Alternative check (if short method exists):

Consultation of older production records and standard textbooks confirms both processes for Indian rails before wide adoption of BOF routes.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

Limiting to a single process ignores historical practice; “neither” is incorrect; “Bessemer basic only” does not reflect mainstream Indian rail production.

Common Pitfalls (misconceptions, mistakes):

Assuming only modern BOF/LD processes; overlooking the long service era of open hearth and duplex routes in India.

Final Answer:

both (a) and (b)