Effects of excessive camber on pavements: which of the following may occur if the camber (crossfall) provided is unnecessarily high?

Introduction / Context:
Camber provides crossfall for surface drainage. While necessary, excessive camber can produce undesirable structural and operational effects on the pavement and adjacent shoulders (berms).

Given Data / Assumptions:

• Pavement has a camber larger than recommended for the surface type and rainfall.
• Vehicles operate at representative speeds.
• Berms and drainage are typical of rural highways.

Concept / Approach:
Too large a crossfall pushes water and traffic laterally too aggressively. Water concentrates at edges, accelerating erosion; vehicles experience lateral component of gravity that can cause outward skidding; the crown region carries more compression and may ravel or crack due to thin water film movement.

Step-by-Step Solution:

Verification / Alternative check:
Field inspections correlate over-cambered sections with edge raveling, berm gullying, and centerline distress due to uneven load distribution and drainage patterns.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:
Each of (a), (b), and (c) are valid individual consequences; therefore “all the above” best captures the full effect set.

Common Pitfalls:
Using a “one size fits all” camber; not adjusting camber for surface type (e.g., CC vs bituminous) and rainfall intensity.

Final Answer:
all the above.