Q: Intrinsic semiconductors at room temperature: The electrical current in an intrinsic semiconductor is primarily due to which carriers?

Introduction / Context: Intrinsic semiconductors such as pure silicon or germanium have no intentional dopants. Thermal energy at room temperature excites electrons across the band gap, generating free electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence band in equal numbers. Device physics and conductivity calculations rely on understanding these carriers. Given Data / Assumptions: Material is undoped (intrinsic) at room temperature. Steady-state thermal equilibrium with intrinsic carrier concentration n_i. No ionic conduction in the solid lattice. Concept / Approach: Thermal generation produces electron–hole pairs (EHPs). In intrinsic material, n = p = n_i. Electrical conduction occurs because electrons and holes drift under electric fields and diffuse down concentration gradients; both contribute to total current density J = q(n μ_n + p μ_p)E + diffusion terms. Ions in the crystal lattice are fixed and do not partake in conduction. Step-by-Step Solution: Recognize intrinsic condition: n = p.Both carrier types are present → both contribute to current.Choose “holes and electrons.” Verification / Alternative check: Hall effect measurements in intrinsic samples reflect the combined contribution of both carriers and often show temperature dependence consistent with n_i(T). Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Holes” or “electrons” alone describes doped (extrinsic) conditions where one type dominates. “Ions” do not move in a rigid semiconductor lattice at room temperature. “Excitons only” are bound states; conduction requires free carriers. Common Pitfalls: Assuming one carrier dominates in intrinsic material; that occurs after doping. Final Answer: holes and electrons

Q: Assertion–Reason (solid state basics): Assertion (A) The atomic number of sodium is 11. Reason (R) Sodium crystallizes in a body-centred cubic (BCC) lattice. Evaluate the pair.

Introduction / Context: Assertion–Reason questions test whether a correct statement (the assertion) is logically explained by the accompanying reason. Here, we compare an elemental property (atomic number) with a crystal structure property (lattice type) for sodium (Na). Given Data / Assumptions: Atomic number Z(Na) = 11, corresponding to electron configuration [Ne] 3s^1. At ambient conditions, metallic sodium adopts the BCC crystal structure. Concept / Approach: Atomic number is a nuclear property counting protons; it is independent of the solid’s crystal lattice. While valence electron configuration influences bonding and thus often correlates with preferred lattice, the numeric fact “Z = 11” does not follow from, nor is it explained by, “Na is BCC.” Therefore both statements are true, but the reason does not explain the assertion. Step-by-Step Solution: Check A: Z(Na) = 11 → True.Check R: Na is BCC at room temperature → True.Does R explain A? No → choose “Both true but R not the explanation.” Verification / Alternative check: Chemical data tables list Z = 11 and BCC structure for alkali metals (Li, Na, K, etc.) at standard conditions, supporting both independent facts. Why Other Options Are Wrong: A true, R false: incorrect because Na is indeed BCC at room temperature. A false, R true or both false: contradict established facts. “R explains A” is logically incorrect; lattice does not determine atomic number. Common Pitfalls: Assuming correlation implies causation; lattice type does not determine Z. Final Answer: Both A and R are true but R is not correct explanation of A

Q: Semiconductor doping—donor impurities: From the list {Gold, Phosphorus, Boron, Antimony, Arsenic, Indium}, identify the donor impurities for Si/Ge at room temperature.

Introduction / Context: Donor impurities in group-IV semiconductors (Si, Ge) are typically group-V elements that contribute extra electrons to the lattice, creating n-type material. Distinguishing donors from acceptors and deep-level impurities is key for device design and process control. Given Data / Assumptions: Candidates: Gold (Au), Phosphorus (P), Boron (B), Antimony (Sb), Arsenic (As), Indium (In). Host: Si or Ge at room temperature. Concept / Approach: Group-V dopants (P, As, Sb) have five valence electrons; substituting into the group-IV lattice leaves one extra electron weakly bound, acting as a donor (n-type). Group-III elements (B, In) are acceptors (p-type). Gold is not a shallow donor in Si/Ge; it introduces deep recombination levels and is often used to control lifetime, not conductivity type. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify group of each: P(V), As(V), Sb(V) → donors; B(III), In(III) → acceptors; Au → deep level.Map to indices: 2 (P), 4 (Sb), 5 (As) → donors.Select option listing 2, 4, 5. Verification / Alternative check: Standard dopant tables list P, As, Sb as n-type dopants in Si/Ge; B, Al, Ga, In as p-type; Au introduces deep traps. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Options including 1 (Au) or 3 (B) or 6 (In) misclassify acceptors/deep levels as donors. Common Pitfalls: Assuming all metals (like Au) donate electrons—deep levels are not shallow donors. Final Answer: 2, 4, 5

Q: Assertion–Reason (electrical power and heating): Assertion (A) Power loss in a conductor is P = I^2 R. Reason (R) With current density J under an applied electric field E, the heat developed per unit volume per second equals J·E.

Introduction / Context: Joule heating describes electrical power converted to heat in conductors and resistive media. The macroscopic formula P = I^2 R is widely used, while the microscopic expression for volumetric heating q̇_v = J·E connects material properties and field distributions to thermal power density. Given Data / Assumptions: Ohmic conductor with J = σE (linear isotropic medium). Steady sinusoidal or DC conditions (instantaneous relations apply to both). Uniform cross-section A and length ℓ for simple derivation. Concept / Approach: The local power density is q̇_v = J·E. Integrating over the conductor volume gives total power. Using Ohm’s law relationships (V = IR, I = JA, E = V/ℓ), we can reduce the volume integral to the lumped formula P = I^2 R, demonstrating that the microscopic statement explains the macroscopic result. Step-by-Step Solution: Start with q̇_v = J·E = σE^2 = J^2/σ.Total power P = ∫_V q̇_v dV = ∫_V J·E dV.For uniform conductor: J = I/A, E = V/ℓ, so P = (I/A)(V/ℓ) Aℓ = IV.Using V = IR gives P = I^2 R, proving A and showing R explains A. Verification / Alternative check: The same conclusion follows from P = V^2/R by substituting I = V/R, consistent with energy conservation and circuit theory. Why Other Options Are Wrong: If R were false, the derivation from fields to circuit formula would fail, but it is standard. Common Pitfalls: Confusing magnitude J·E with vector product sign conventions; in passive media J is parallel to E, so J·E ≥ 0. Final Answer: Both A and R are true and R is correct explanation of A

Q: Internal microscopic electric field in dielectrics: For solid or liquid insulating materials placed in a uniform external field E, how does the local internal field Ei at an atomic site compare with E?

Introduction / Context: The microscopic field acting on an atom or molecule embedded in a dielectric differs from the macroscopic applied field due to local field corrections (Lorentz field) and polarization of the surrounding medium. Understanding this distinction is crucial for deriving relations between macroscopic permittivity and molecular polarizability (e.g., Clausius–Mossotti relation). Given Data / Assumptions: Linear, isotropic dielectric with relative permittivity ε_r. Atom located inside an imagined spherical cavity (Lorentz construction). Uniform external macroscopic field E. Concept / Approach: In the Lorentz model, the local internal field at the atom is Ei = E + P/(3ε0), where P is the polarization vector. Since P = ε0(ε_r − 1)E in linear media, the correction term is positive for ε_r > 1, implying Ei exceeds the applied macroscopic field. This enhancement drives larger microscopic dipole moments than one would estimate from E alone and underpins the link between molecular polarizability and bulk permittivity. Step-by-Step Solution: Write Ei = E + P/(3ε0).Use P = ε0(ε_r − 1)E ⇒ Ei = E + (ε_r − 1)E/3.Hence Ei = E * (1 + (ε_r − 1)/3) > E for ε_r > 1. Verification / Alternative check: Clausius–Mossotti: (ε_r − 1)/(ε_r + 2) = Nα/(3ε0) assumes the same local field Ei, confirming the consistency of Ei > E in ordinary dielectrics. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Ei = E neglects local polarization; only holds for ε_r = 1 (vacuum). Ei 1. “Always zero” is unphysical; insulators transmit displacement fields. “Equal or less” contradicts Lorentz field result. Common Pitfalls: Confusing macroscopic average field with microscopic local field—these differ in condensed matter. Final Answer: Ei > E

Question 1

In electromagnetics and materials science, the complex relative permittivity is written as ε_r = ε_r' − j ε_r'' where ε_r' is the real (storage) part and ε_r'' is the imaginary (loss) part. If δ is the dielectric loss angle, which relation correctly…

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Dielectric materials in alternating electric fields are described by a complex relative permittivity ε_r = ε_r' − j ε_r'' . The real part ε_r' represents the electric energy stored elastically in polarization, while the imaginary part ε_r'' represents energy dissipated as heat during each cycle. The dielectric loss angle δ quantifies this dissipation and is widely used in capacitor design, RF engineering, insulation diagnostics, and materials characterization. Given Data / Assumptions: Complex relative permittivity: ε_r = ε_r' − j ε_r'' with ε_r', ε_r'' > 0 for passive materials. Loss angle δ is defined from the phase lag between the electric field and the displacement (or polarization) in linear dielectrics under sinusoidal steady state. Small-signal, linear, isotropic medium; angular frequency ω is fixed. Concept / Approach: The phasor form of the electric displacement is D = ε_0 ε_r E = ε_0 (ε_r' − j ε_r'') E. In the complex plane, the in-phase component (with E) is ε_0 ε_r' E and the quadrature (loss) component is ε_0 ε_r'' E. The loss tangent tan δ is defined as the ratio of the magnitudes of these two components. Therefore tan δ equals ε_r'' / ε_r'. This dimensionless ratio is sometimes written as tan δ = σ_eff / (ω ε_0 ε_r') when losses are represented by an equivalent conductivity σ_eff. Step-by-Step Solution: Write ε_r = ε_r' − j ε_r'' and D = ε_0 ε_r E.Identify stored (in-phase) component: D_s = ε_0 ε_r' E.Identify loss (quadrature) component: D_l = ε_0 ε_r'' E.Define loss tangent: tan δ = |D_l| / |D_s| = (ε_0 ε_r'' |E|) / (ε_0 ε_r' |E|).Cancel common terms to obtain: tan δ = ε_r'' / ε_r'. Verification / Alternative check: If ε_r'' = 0 (perfect lossless dielectric), tan δ = 0 as expected.For small losses (ε_r'' ≪ ε_r'), δ ≈ tan δ, so δ directly indicates the small phase lag; this matches standard capacitor dissipation factor measurements. Why Other Options Are Wrong: tan δ = ε_r' / ε_r'' reverses the ratio and would imply infinite loss when ε_r'' is small.tan δ = ε_r' * ε_r'' has incorrect dimensions and no physical basis.tan δ = 1 − ε_r' mixes a dimensionless ratio with an absolute permittivity value; meaningless physically.tan δ = (ε_r'^2 + ε_r''^2)^(1/2) gives the magnitude of ε_r, not the loss tangent. Common Pitfalls: Confusing the sign convention (ε_r = ε_r' − j ε_r'')—regardless of convention, the loss tangent remains the ratio of imaginary to real parts.Mixing absolute permittivity ε with relative permittivity ε_r; the ratio tan δ is the same in either case because ε_0 cancels. Final Answer: tan δ = ε_r'' / ε_r'

Question 2

Magnetic classification check: Is diamond paramagnetic, diamagnetic, or something else under normal conditions?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Knowing whether a material is diamagnetic, paramagnetic, or ferromagnetic is essential in materials science and device engineering. Carbon in the diamond structure provides a classic case study of closed-shell bonding and magnetic response. Given Data / Assumptions: Pure diamond (sp^3 bonded carbon), no significant defects or dopants. Room temperature and weak applied magnetic fields. Interest is in intrinsic (bulk) magnetic behavior. Concept / Approach: Diamagnetism arises when all electrons are paired; an applied field induces a small magnetic moment that opposes the field, giving a negative magnetic susceptibility. Diamond’s covalent network has paired electrons and no unpaired spin carriers, so it is diamagnetic. Paramagnetism requires unpaired electrons; ferromagnetism needs exchange-coupled ordering and domains. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify electronic structure of diamond: fully paired electrons in strong covalent bonds.Conclude absence of permanent dipoles; only induced moments occur.Therefore, classify as diamagnetic. Verification / Alternative check: Magnetic susceptibility measurements show small negative χ for diamond, consistent with diamagnetism. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Paramagnetism requires unpaired spins; ferromagnetism and antiferromagnetism require magnetic sublattices and ordering not present in diamond. Common Pitfalls: Confusing graphite's conduction behavior with magnetic ordering; graphite is also diamagnetic. Final Answer: Diamagnetic under normal conditions

Question 3

Assertion–Reason (semiconductor properties): Silicon is less sensitive to temperature changes than germanium. Reason: The cut-in (turn-on) voltage in silicon is less than that in germanium.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Temperature sensitivity determines the stability of diodes and transistors. Silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge) differ in band gap and intrinsic carrier generation, producing different thermal behaviors and turn-on voltages. Given Data / Assumptions: Typical room-temperature band gaps: Si ≈ 1.12 eV, Ge ≈ 0.66 eV. Typical diode cut-in voltages: Si ≈ 0.7 V, Ge ≈ 0.3 V (order of magnitude). Comparison is for standard, undamaged devices under similar conditions. Concept / Approach: The intrinsic carrier concentration n_i grows roughly as exp(−E_g/(2kT)). A larger E_g (silicon) yields much lower n_i and a smaller temperature coefficient of leakage and parameters. Hence Si is less temperature-sensitive than Ge — the assertion is true. The reason claims Si has a smaller cut-in voltage than Ge, which is false; Si's cut-in is larger. Step-by-Step Solution: Relate temperature sensitivity to band gap: larger E_g → lower n_i → better thermal stability.Check cut-in voltages: V_γ(Si) ≈ 0.7 V > V_γ(Ge) ≈ 0.3 V.Therefore A is true; R is false; R cannot explain A. Verification / Alternative check: Leakage current vs. temperature curves show Ge rises much faster than Si, confirming higher sensitivity of Ge. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Options claiming R true contradict measured diode characteristics; options stating A false contradict band-gap arguments. Common Pitfalls: Confusing forward drop (cut-in) with thermal stability; they are related to material properties but not in the way stated by R. Final Answer: A is true but R is false

Question 4

Doping basics: A pentavalent (group V) impurity introduced into a group IV semiconductor contributes how many valence electrons?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Doping modifies the electrical properties of semiconductors by adding controlled impurities. Pentavalent dopants (group V), such as phosphorus or arsenic, create n-type material by donating electrons. Given Data / Assumptions: Host lattice is group IV (e.g., silicon) with four covalent bonds. Dopant is pentavalent (group V): five valence electrons. Substitutional doping: dopant replaces a silicon atom in the lattice. Concept / Approach: The dopant's five valence electrons form four bonds with neighboring atoms, leaving one extra, loosely bound electron. This electron requires little energy to become a conduction electron, increasing carrier concentration dramatically. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify dopant group: V → five valence electrons.Place dopant substitutionally: four electrons complete covalent bonds.Recognize remaining electron as a donor level near the conduction band. Verification / Alternative check: Hall-effect measurements show negative carriers dominate in n-type silicon doped with P or As. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 4 corresponds to group IV; 3 and 1 correspond to acceptors/monovalent species; 2 is not applicable here. Common Pitfalls: Confusing donor (group V) with acceptor (group III) dopants. Final Answer: 5

Question 5

Dielectric behavior check: Is it correct to say that no dielectric material exhibits hysteresis (i.e., polarization does not depend on the previous electric-field history)?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Polarization in dielectric materials can follow the applied electric field along a path that depends on prior excitation. The presence or absence of hysteresis is crucial in capacitor dielectrics, non-volatile memories, sensors, and actuators. Given Data / Assumptions: Dielectric classes considered: linear, nonlinear, and ferroelectric materials. Quasi-static field cycling to observe polarization–electric field (P–E) behavior. Room-temperature behavior unless otherwise noted. Concept / Approach: Linear dielectrics follow P = ε0 χ E without hysteresis. However, ferroelectric materials (e.g., BaTiO3, PZT) show spontaneous polarization that can be reversed by an external field, producing a characteristic P–E loop (dielectric hysteresis). Relaxor and some polymer ferroelectrics also show history-dependent response. Thus the blanket statement that no dielectric has hysteresis is false. Step-by-Step Solution: Define hysteresis: output (polarization) depends on input history (electric field).Identify classes: linear dielectrics (no hysteresis) vs. ferroelectrics (with hysteresis).Conclude the statement is false due to ferroelectric examples. Verification / Alternative check: Measure a P–E loop using a Sawyer–Tower circuit; ferroelectrics show remanent polarization and coercive field. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Options asserting universal absence of hysteresis ignore a large class of materials.Frequency or temperature caveats do not make the universal statement true. Common Pitfalls: Assuming behavior of ideal capacitors applies to all dielectrics; overlooking ferroelectric phase transitions. Final Answer: False — many dielectrics (especially ferroelectrics) exhibit dielectric hysteresis

Question 6

Ferromagnetism and temperature: Does magnetic hysteresis persist at all temperatures in ferromagnetic materials?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Ferromagnetic materials show domain ordering that produces remanence and coercivity — the ingredients of magnetic hysteresis. Temperature strongly influences this ordering through thermal agitation and exchange interactions. Given Data / Assumptions: Ferromagnetic solid with a well-defined Curie temperature T_C. Quasi-static magnetization cycles measured below and above T_C. No external mechanical stresses or special anisotropy treatments considered. Concept / Approach: Below T_C, exchange coupling aligns spins into domains, yielding non-zero remanent magnetization and coercive field — a hysteresis loop appears when cycling H. Above T_C, thermal energy overcomes exchange alignment; the material becomes paramagnetic with zero remanence and negligible coercivity, so the loop collapses to a reversible line through the origin. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify temperature region: T < T_C → ferromagnetic (domains, hysteresis).Increase temperature: approach T_C → loop shrinks as magnetization decreases.For T ≥ T_C: paramagnetic behavior; no hysteresis loop (no remanence or coercivity). Verification / Alternative check: Experimental M–H curves across T_C show the loop area tending to zero at and above T_C. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Saying hysteresis exists at all temperatures contradicts well-established phase behavior.Other distractors are physically nonsensical (e.g., 'below absolute zero'). Common Pitfalls: Confusing ferromagnetic with ferrimagnetic or antiferromagnetic transitions; each has its own critical temperature but hysteresis still collapses in the paramagnetic state. Final Answer: No, above the Curie temperature the material becomes paramagnetic and hysteresis vanishes

Question 7

Magnetic materials—paramagnetism: Identify the correct statement about the existence and interaction of permanent magnetic dipoles in paramagnetic substances.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Paramagnetism describes the magnetic behavior of materials whose atoms or ions possess permanent magnetic dipole moments (usually from unpaired electron spins) but do not spontaneously order as in ferromagnets. Understanding whether dipoles exist and how strongly they interact is fundamental in materials science, solid-state physics, and electrical engineering applications such as magnetic sensing and cryogenics. Given Data / Assumptions: Room or moderate temperatures are considered (far from magnetic ordering transitions). Weak external magnetic fields so that linear susceptibility applies. Polycrystalline or gaseous paramagnets without strong exchange coupling. Concept / Approach: In paramagnets, individual atoms or ions carry permanent dipole moments. However, thermal agitation randomizes orientations, and there is negligible exchange interaction between neighboring moments. When an external field is applied, a small net alignment occurs, producing a positive susceptibility typically following Curie or Curie–Weiss law (χ ≈ C/T or C/(T − θ) with small θ). The absence of strong mutual interaction distinguishes paramagnets from ferro- or antiferromagnets, where exchange forces are strong and lead to collective order. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify whether permanent dipoles exist → yes, due to unpaired spins/orbital moments.Assess interaction between neighboring dipoles → negligible in paramagnets; no spontaneous order.Conclude the statement that best captures both facts: dipoles exist, interactions are negligible. Verification / Alternative check: Empirically, magnetization M in paramagnets is proportional to H/T (Langevin or Brillouin functions), consistent with independent dipoles weakly aligned by the field and randomized by temperature, confirming negligible inter-dipole coupling. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Dipoles do not exist” contradicts the positive susceptibility and microscopic origin of paramagnetism. “Very strong interaction” would imply ferro/antiferromagnetic ordering. “May or may not exist” is vague and ignores the defining presence of moments in paramagnets. “Only at very low temperatures” is incorrect; paramagnetism occurs broadly until ordering temperatures are approached. Common Pitfalls: Confusing paramagnetism (independent dipoles) with ferromagnetism (collective order) because both yield positive χ. Final Answer: permanent magnetic dipoles exist but the interaction between neighbouring dipoles is negligible

Question 8

AC behavior of a practical (air-cored) capacitor: If a capacitor of capacitance C has a series parasitic inductance L, the apparent capacitance at an angular frequency ω is given by which expression?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Real capacitors are not ideal. Their leads and electrode geometry introduce a small series inductance L. At high frequencies, this parasitic inductance alters the net reactance, and it is convenient to describe the combined series L–C as an equivalent “apparent capacitance” C_app that reproduces the actual reactance at the operating frequency ω. This concept is vital in RF design and high-speed electronics. Given Data / Assumptions: Ideal capacitor C in series with small inductance L (air-cored, negligible loss). Angular frequency ω, sinusoidal steady state. Define C_app so that the series combination has the same capacitive reactance magnitude as an ideal capacitor of value C_app (when the net reactance is capacitive). Concept / Approach: The series reactance is X_series = ωL − 1/(ωC). For an equivalent single capacitor, X_eq = −1/(ω C_app). Equate X_eq to X_series to solve for C_app. This yields a frequency-dependent capacitance that diverges at series resonance (ω^2 L C = 1), beyond which the branch appears inductive (no meaningful positive C_app). Step-by-Step Solution: Start with ωL − 1/(ωC) = −1/(ω C_app).Multiply both sides by ω: ω^2 L − 1/C = −1/C_app.Hence 1/C_app = 1/C − ω^2 L.Therefore C_app = C / (1 − ω^2 L C). Verification / Alternative check: Check limits: as ω → 0, ω^2 L C → 0 ⇒ C_app → C (correct). As ω approaches 1/√(LC), denominator → 0 and |C_app| → ∞ (series resonance), matching the expected behavior of a minimum impedance point. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Forms with (1 + ω^2 L C) arise for different equivalent definitions (e.g., parallel forms) or are simply incorrect for the series case. Frequency-independent C contradicts observed high-frequency behavior. Common Pitfalls: Confusing series and parallel equivalences; be explicit about the chosen model. Using the expression beyond resonance where the branch is effectively inductive. Final Answer: C_app = C / (1 - ω^2 L C)

Question 9

Ferroelectric materials—definition: Which statement correctly characterizes ferroelectric substances in solid-state physics and materials engineering?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Ferroelectric materials (e.g., BaTiO3, PbTiO3) possess a spontaneous electric polarization that can be reversed by an external electric field. Their polarization–electric field relationship shows a characteristic hysteresis loop, analogous to ferromagnetic materials in magnetism. Ferroelectrics are central to non-volatile memories, sensors, actuators, and high-K dielectrics. Given Data / Assumptions: Crystalline solids exhibiting phase transitions to a non-centrosymmetric structure. Macroscopic spontaneous polarization exists below Curie temperature. External field can switch domain orientations. Concept / Approach: “Permanent” here means spontaneous (non-zero at zero field) but not immutable—the polarization can be reoriented by E. This distinguishes ferroelectrics from ordinary dielectrics that only polarize under applied field and lose polarization when E → 0. It also differs from anti-ferroelectrics (net polarization cancels) and paraelectrics (above Curie temperature, no spontaneous polarization). Step-by-Step Solution: Identify defining property: spontaneous polarization P_s ≠ 0 at zero field.Confirm reversibility: domains can be switched by an applied E, producing hysteresis.Select statement that matches: “have a permanent polarization.” Verification / Alternative check: Experimental P–E loops and dielectric anomalies near Curie temperature verify ferroelectric behavior. Crystal symmetry analysis (lack of inversion center) supports spontaneous polarization. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Cannot be polarized” is the opposite of reality. “a_e = 0” (electronic polarizability zero) and “μ_p = 0” are physically incorrect; electronic polarizability is nonzero and μ_p concept is unrelated here. “Only electronic polarization with no hysteresis” describes linear dielectrics, not ferroelectrics. Common Pitfalls: Confusing “permanent” with “non-switchable.” Ferroelectric polarization is switchable. Final Answer: have a permanent polarization

Question 10

Intrinsic semiconductors at room temperature: The electrical current in an intrinsic semiconductor is primarily due to which carriers?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Intrinsic semiconductors such as pure silicon or germanium have no intentional dopants. Thermal energy at room temperature excites electrons across the band gap, generating free electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence band in equal numbers. Device physics and conductivity calculations rely on understanding these carriers. Given Data / Assumptions: Material is undoped (intrinsic) at room temperature. Steady-state thermal equilibrium with intrinsic carrier concentration n_i. No ionic conduction in the solid lattice. Concept / Approach: Thermal generation produces electron–hole pairs (EHPs). In intrinsic material, n = p = n_i. Electrical conduction occurs because electrons and holes drift under electric fields and diffuse down concentration gradients; both contribute to total current density J = q(n μ_n + p μ_p)E + diffusion terms. Ions in the crystal lattice are fixed and do not partake in conduction. Step-by-Step Solution: Recognize intrinsic condition: n = p.Both carrier types are present → both contribute to current.Choose “holes and electrons.” Verification / Alternative check: Hall effect measurements in intrinsic samples reflect the combined contribution of both carriers and often show temperature dependence consistent with n_i(T). Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Holes” or “electrons” alone describes doped (extrinsic) conditions where one type dominates. “Ions” do not move in a rigid semiconductor lattice at room temperature. “Excitons only” are bound states; conduction requires free carriers. Common Pitfalls: Assuming one carrier dominates in intrinsic material; that occurs after doping. Final Answer: holes and electrons

Question 11

Assertion–Reason (solid state basics): Assertion (A) The atomic number of sodium is 11. Reason (R) Sodium crystallizes in a body-centred cubic (BCC) lattice. Evaluate the pair.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Assertion–Reason questions test whether a correct statement (the assertion) is logically explained by the accompanying reason. Here, we compare an elemental property (atomic number) with a crystal structure property (lattice type) for sodium (Na). Given Data / Assumptions: Atomic number Z(Na) = 11, corresponding to electron configuration [Ne] 3s^1. At ambient conditions, metallic sodium adopts the BCC crystal structure. Concept / Approach: Atomic number is a nuclear property counting protons; it is independent of the solid’s crystal lattice. While valence electron configuration influences bonding and thus often correlates with preferred lattice, the numeric fact “Z = 11” does not follow from, nor is it explained by, “Na is BCC.” Therefore both statements are true, but the reason does not explain the assertion. Step-by-Step Solution: Check A: Z(Na) = 11 → True.Check R: Na is BCC at room temperature → True.Does R explain A? No → choose “Both true but R not the explanation.” Verification / Alternative check: Chemical data tables list Z = 11 and BCC structure for alkali metals (Li, Na, K, etc.) at standard conditions, supporting both independent facts. Why Other Options Are Wrong: A true, R false: incorrect because Na is indeed BCC at room temperature. A false, R true or both false: contradict established facts. “R explains A” is logically incorrect; lattice does not determine atomic number. Common Pitfalls: Assuming correlation implies causation; lattice type does not determine Z. Final Answer: Both A and R are true but R is not correct explanation of A

Question 12

Semiconductor doping—donor impurities: From the list {Gold, Phosphorus, Boron, Antimony, Arsenic, Indium}, identify the donor impurities for Si/Ge at room temperature.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Donor impurities in group-IV semiconductors (Si, Ge) are typically group-V elements that contribute extra electrons to the lattice, creating n-type material. Distinguishing donors from acceptors and deep-level impurities is key for device design and process control. Given Data / Assumptions: Candidates: Gold (Au), Phosphorus (P), Boron (B), Antimony (Sb), Arsenic (As), Indium (In). Host: Si or Ge at room temperature. Concept / Approach: Group-V dopants (P, As, Sb) have five valence electrons; substituting into the group-IV lattice leaves one extra electron weakly bound, acting as a donor (n-type). Group-III elements (B, In) are acceptors (p-type). Gold is not a shallow donor in Si/Ge; it introduces deep recombination levels and is often used to control lifetime, not conductivity type. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify group of each: P(V), As(V), Sb(V) → donors; B(III), In(III) → acceptors; Au → deep level.Map to indices: 2 (P), 4 (Sb), 5 (As) → donors.Select option listing 2, 4, 5. Verification / Alternative check: Standard dopant tables list P, As, Sb as n-type dopants in Si/Ge; B, Al, Ga, In as p-type; Au introduces deep traps. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Options including 1 (Au) or 3 (B) or 6 (In) misclassify acceptors/deep levels as donors. Common Pitfalls: Assuming all metals (like Au) donate electrons—deep levels are not shallow donors. Final Answer: 2, 4, 5

Question 13

Assertion–Reason (electrical power and heating): Assertion (A) Power loss in a conductor is P = I^2 R. Reason (R) With current density J under an applied electric field E, the heat developed per unit volume per second equals J·E.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Joule heating describes electrical power converted to heat in conductors and resistive media. The macroscopic formula P = I^2 R is widely used, while the microscopic expression for volumetric heating q̇_v = J·E connects material properties and field distributions to thermal power density. Given Data / Assumptions: Ohmic conductor with J = σE (linear isotropic medium). Steady sinusoidal or DC conditions (instantaneous relations apply to both). Uniform cross-section A and length ℓ for simple derivation. Concept / Approach: The local power density is q̇_v = J·E. Integrating over the conductor volume gives total power. Using Ohm’s law relationships (V = IR, I = JA, E = V/ℓ), we can reduce the volume integral to the lumped formula P = I^2 R, demonstrating that the microscopic statement explains the macroscopic result. Step-by-Step Solution: Start with q̇_v = J·E = σE^2 = J^2/σ.Total power P = ∫_V q̇_v dV = ∫_V J·E dV.For uniform conductor: J = I/A, E = V/ℓ, so P = (I/A)(V/ℓ) Aℓ = IV.Using V = IR gives P = I^2 R, proving A and showing R explains A. Verification / Alternative check: The same conclusion follows from P = V^2/R by substituting I = V/R, consistent with energy conservation and circuit theory. Why Other Options Are Wrong: If R were false, the derivation from fields to circuit formula would fail, but it is standard. Common Pitfalls: Confusing magnitude J·E with vector product sign conventions; in passive media J is parallel to E, so J·E ≥ 0. Final Answer: Both A and R are true and R is correct explanation of A

Question 14

Internal microscopic electric field in dielectrics: For solid or liquid insulating materials placed in a uniform external field E, how does the local internal field Ei at an atomic site compare with E?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: The microscopic field acting on an atom or molecule embedded in a dielectric differs from the macroscopic applied field due to local field corrections (Lorentz field) and polarization of the surrounding medium. Understanding this distinction is crucial for deriving relations between macroscopic permittivity and molecular polarizability (e.g., Clausius–Mossotti relation). Given Data / Assumptions: Linear, isotropic dielectric with relative permittivity ε_r. Atom located inside an imagined spherical cavity (Lorentz construction). Uniform external macroscopic field E. Concept / Approach: In the Lorentz model, the local internal field at the atom is Ei = E + P/(3ε0), where P is the polarization vector. Since P = ε0(ε_r − 1)E in linear media, the correction term is positive for ε_r > 1, implying Ei exceeds the applied macroscopic field. This enhancement drives larger microscopic dipole moments than one would estimate from E alone and underpins the link between molecular polarizability and bulk permittivity. Step-by-Step Solution: Write Ei = E + P/(3ε0).Use P = ε0(ε_r − 1)E ⇒ Ei = E + (ε_r − 1)E/3.Hence Ei = E * (1 + (ε_r − 1)/3) > E for ε_r > 1. Verification / Alternative check: Clausius–Mossotti: (ε_r − 1)/(ε_r + 2) = Nα/(3ε0) assumes the same local field Ei, confirming the consistency of Ei > E in ordinary dielectrics. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Ei = E neglects local polarization; only holds for ε_r = 1 (vacuum). Ei < E would require negative correction, not applicable to typical solids/liquids with ε_r > 1. “Always zero” is unphysical; insulators transmit displacement fields. “Equal or less” contradicts Lorentz field result. Common Pitfalls: Confusing macroscopic average field with microscopic local field—these differ in condensed matter. Final Answer: Ei > E

Question 15

Donor impurity basics: A donor impurity atom in a group-IV semiconductor contributes how many valence electrons?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: In silicon or germanium, substitutional doping with group-V elements (P, As, Sb) creates donor states because these atoms bring five valence electrons to a lattice where only four are required for sp^3 bonding. The extra electron is weakly bound and can be thermally ionized to the conduction band, producing n-type conductivity. Given Data / Assumptions: Host: group-IV semiconductor with four covalent bonds per atom. Donor: group-V atom substituting a lattice site. Room temperature operation where donors are largely ionized. Concept / Approach: Valence electron count determines dopant type: five valence electrons make a donor (n-type), three make an acceptor (p-type). The donor’s fifth electron occupies a shallow hydrogenic level and contributes to conduction when ionized. Step-by-Step Solution: Group-V → 5 valence electrons.Four partake in covalent bonding; the fifth becomes a donor electron.Therefore, donor impurity has 5 valence electrons. Verification / Alternative check: Common donors: P, As, Sb (all five-valent). Common acceptors: B, Al, Ga, In (three-valent). Why Other Options Are Wrong: 4 corresponds to host atoms (Si, Ge), not donors. 3 corresponds to acceptors. 1 or 2 do not match main-group substitution chemistry here. Common Pitfalls: Confusing donor/acceptor roles across different hosts (e.g., III–V compounds follow different rules). Final Answer: 5

Question 16

Assertion–Reason (lossy dielectrics in AC): Assertion (A) In imperfect capacitors, the current does not lead the applied AC voltage by exactly 90°. Reason (R) Under AC fields, the dielectric constant is represented by a complex quantity ε* = ε′<sub>…

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Real capacitors and dielectrics exhibit losses due to polarization lag and conduction. In AC analysis, these losses are modeled by a complex permittivity. This produces a current that leads voltage by an angle less than 90°, reflected in a nonzero loss tangent (tan δ = ε″/ε′ or equivalently conductance in parallel with capacitance). Given Data / Assumptions: Slightly lossy linear dielectric with ε* = ε′ − j ε″. Sinusoidal steady state at angular frequency ω. Negligible magnetic effects and linear response. Concept / Approach: For a parallel-plate capacitor with area A and gap d, the current density is J = dD/dt + σE. Using D = ε0 ε* E with ε* complex, the displacement current acquires a component in phase with the electric field. The total current phasor leads voltage by 90° only when ε″ = 0 (perfect dielectric). If ε″ > 0, the lead angle is 90° − δ with tan δ = ε″/ε′, proving the assertion and showing how the complex permittivity explains it. Step-by-Step Solution: Write D = ε0(ε′ − j ε″)E in phasor form.Current density phasor J = jωD = jωε0ε′E + ωε0ε″E.Thus, J has a quadrature part (jωε0ε′E) and an in-phase loss part (ωε0ε″E) → phase lead < 90°. Verification / Alternative check: Equivalently, model an imperfect capacitor as an ideal C in parallel with R (or series with ESR); both give a phase angle smaller than 90°, consistent with nonzero ε″. Why Other Options Are Wrong: If R were false, there would be no mechanism to reduce the phase lead from 90°. Claiming A false contradicts ubiquitous dielectric loss in real materials. Common Pitfalls: Sign conventions: some texts use ε* = ε′ + jε″ with opposite phasor convention; the physics (loss angle > 0) is the same. Final Answer: Both A and R are true and R is correct explanation of A

Question 17

Assertion–Reason (Ferroelectrics): Ferroelectric materials possess spontaneous polarization; above the Curie temperature they lose ferroelectricity and no longer follow a simple constant-permittivity relation.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Ferroelectric solids (for example BaTiO3 and Pb(Zr,Ti)O3) exhibit a spontaneous electric polarization that can be reversed by an external electric field, giving a characteristic hysteresis loop. Understanding what happens at and above the Curie temperature is foundational in materials science and capacitor design. Given Data / Assumptions: Assertion (A): Ferroelectrics have spontaneous polarization. Reason (R): The stem suggests a simplistic relation for permittivity above the Curie point (incomplete as written). Temperature crosses T_C (Curie temperature). Concept / Approach: Below T_C, the crystal is ferroelectric with domain structure and remanent polarization. Above T_C, the material becomes paraelectric with no spontaneous polarization; its dielectric constant is not a fixed number but follows Curie–Weiss behavior, commonly written as epsilon_r = C / (T − T_0) for many ferroelectrics. Therefore, any claim that epsilon becomes some simple constant '=' value above T_C is incorrect or incomplete. Step-by-Step Solution: Accept A: Ferroelectrics do possess spontaneous polarization below T_C.Evaluate R: Above T_C, spontaneous polarization vanishes and epsilon varies with temperature per Curie–Weiss law, not a constant. The reason as stated is therefore false/incomplete.Conclusion: A is true; R is false, so option (A true, R false) is correct. Verification / Alternative check: Observe P–E hysteresis loops: present below T_C; collapse to a straight line above T_C.Measure epsilon vs. T: strong peak near T_C and Curie–Weiss trend above T_C. Why Other Options Are Wrong: If R were true, it would misrepresent the well-established Curie–Weiss temperature dependence.Saying A is false contradicts the definition of ferroelectricity. Common Pitfalls: Confusing paraelectric high-epsilon behavior with a constant epsilon; ignoring temperature dispersion and frequency effects. Final Answer: A is true but R is false

Question 18

Among standard dielectric types (air, paper, mica, plastic film), which capacitor can store the highest amount of energy for a given volume and safe operating field?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Capacitor energy storage depends on both the dielectric constant and the maximum electric field (dielectric strength) that the material can withstand without breakdown. Choosing the correct dielectric is essential in power electronics, pulse circuits, and precision timing applications. Given Data / Assumptions: Comparison is among conventional, non-electrolytic dielectrics: air, paper, mica, plastic films. Energy density u = 1/2 * epsilon_0 * epsilon_r * E_max^2. We compare typical engineering values of epsilon_r and breakdown strength. Concept / Approach: Air has epsilon_r ≈ 1 and relatively low breakdown strength; paper has moderate epsilon_r but lower strength than engineered solids; many plastic films have moderate epsilon_r (≈2–3) and good strength; high-quality mica exhibits relatively high epsilon_r (≈5–7) and very high dielectric strength with excellent thermal stability. As a result, mica capacitors can be designed to store more energy safely per unit volume than air or paper and are competitive with (and often superior to) many plastic films for high-voltage, high-stability applications. Step-by-Step Solution: Recall u = 1/2 * epsilon_0 * epsilon_r * E_max^2.Air: low epsilon_r and modest E_max → low u.Paper: epsilon_r ~3–4 but limited E_max → modest u.Plastics: epsilon_r ~2–3; E_max good; u moderate to high depending on type.Mica: epsilon_r ~5–7; E_max very high; u comparatively highest among listed conventional dielectrics. Verification / Alternative check: Survey catalog data: high-voltage mica capacitors support large stored energy with tight tolerance and low loss. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Air and paper lack the combination of high epsilon_r and high strength.Many plastic films have lower epsilon_r; while strong, they may not surpass mica in energy storage for comparable form factors. Common Pitfalls: Confusing capacitance per plate area with energy density; forgetting breakdown strength limits practical energy. Final Answer: Mica capacitor

Question 19

Extrinsic semiconductor at higher temperature: if the intrinsic carrier concentration doubles, what happens to majority and minority carrier densities?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: In doped semiconductors, temperature raises intrinsic carrier concentration n_i, which influences minority carriers strongly through the mass-action law. Understanding this interplay is critical when predicting leakage currents and designing devices for high-temperature environments. Given Data / Assumptions: Extrinsic semiconductor (assume n-type for concreteness) with donor density N_D and n_i ≪ N_D initially. Temperature increases so that n_i → 2 n_i. Low-level injection; complete ionization of dopants; equilibrium conditions apply. Concept / Approach: The mass-action law states n * p = n_i^2 at equilibrium. In a strongly n-type sample, the majority concentration n ≈ N_D (weakly affected by modest changes in n_i), while the minority concentration p ≈ n_i^2 / n ≈ n_i^2 / N_D. If n_i doubles, p scales with n_i^2 and therefore quadruples. Majority carriers remain essentially set by ionized donors until very high temperatures push the material toward intrinsic behavior. Step-by-Step Solution: Initial: p_1 ≈ n_i^2 / N_D.After heating: n_i → 2 n_i ⇒ p_2 ≈ (2 n_i)^2 / N_D = 4 n_i^2 / N_D.Therefore p_2 / p_1 = 4; the minority concentration quadruples.Majority concentration remains ≈ N_D for moderate temperature rise. Verification / Alternative check: Check limiting case: if n begins to deviate from N_D, the material tends to intrinsic and both carriers approach n_i; the stated result holds before that limit. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Doubling either density ignores the n_i^2 dependence of the minority carriers.Majority carriers do not double unless the material becomes intrinsic. Common Pitfalls: Forgetting the square dependence p ∝ n_i^2 in extrinsic regimes; assuming symmetric changes for majority and minority carriers. Final Answer: The minority carrier density becomes 4 times the original value

Question 20

Assertion–Reason (Magnetism): Diamagnetic susceptibility is much smaller in magnitude than paramagnetic susceptibility; for both classes the relative permeability μr is close to unity.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Magnetic materials are broadly categorized by their magnetic susceptibility χ and relative permeability μr = 1 + χ. Diamagnets possess small negative χ; paramagnets have small positive χ. Knowing magnitudes and physical origins clarifies many design choices in electromagnetics. Given Data / Assumptions: Diamagnetic χ typically ~ −10^-5 to −10^-6; paramagnetic χ typically ~ +10^-3 to +10^-6. μr = 1 + χ for linear, isotropic materials under weak fields. No cooperative magnetic ordering (i.e., not ferro/ferri/antiferromagnets). Concept / Approach: The assertion states the magnitude of diamagnetic susceptibility is much smaller than that of paramagnetic susceptibility, which is generally true for most elemental and molecular solids. The reason claims μr ≈ 1 for both. While that statement is also true (since |χ| ≪ 1), it does not explain why diamagnetic |χ| is typically smaller than paramagnetic χ. The origins differ: diamagnetism arises from induced currents opposing applied fields (Lenz-like response), whereas paramagnetism arises from alignment of permanent atomic magnetic moments from unpaired spins; the latter mechanism usually yields larger χ. Step-by-Step Solution: Accept A: |χ_dia| ≪ χ_para in most cases.Evaluate R: μr ≈ 1 is true but merely restates small χ, not the magnitude comparison between classes.Therefore, both true, but R is not the correct explanation. Verification / Alternative check: Tabulated values (e.g., Cu: χ ≈ −10^-5; Al: χ ≈ +2×10^-5) illustrate the stated orders of magnitude. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Claiming R explains A confuses a mathematical identity with a physical cause.Saying A false contradicts typical magnitudes. Common Pitfalls: Mixing up sign (negative vs positive χ) with magnitude; assuming μr close to 1 implies identical behavior. Final Answer: Both A and R are true but R is not correct explanation of A

Materials and Components Questions