Q: Bipolar transistor current gain (β) relation: If the current gain β = I_C / I_B is 200 and the collector current I_C is 100 mA, what is the base current I_B?

Introduction / Context: The small-signal or DC current gain of a BJT is defined as β = I_C / I_B. Rearranging gives I_B = I_C / β. This quick calculation appears frequently in biasing design and when estimating drive requirements from preceding stages or controllers. Given Data / Assumptions: I_C = 100 mA. β = 200 (dimensionless). Steady-state DC bias; ignore leakage currents. Concept / Approach: Use the definition of current gain to solve for the unknown base current. Ensure units are consistent and convert the final result to mA for clarity. Step-by-Step Solution: Start with β = I_C / I_B.Rearrange: I_B = I_C / β.Substitute: I_B = 100 mA / 200 = 0.5 mA.State clearly: base current is 0.5 mA. Verification / Alternative check: Back-check: β * I_B = 200 * 0.5 mA = 100 mA = I_C, confirming consistency. Why Other Options Are Wrong: (a) 2 mA would imply β = 50. (c) and (d) are wildly off by orders of magnitude. “None” is unnecessary since an exact match exists. Common Pitfalls: Unit mix-ups (mA vs A) and arithmetic slips when dividing by β. Final Answer: 0.5 mA

Q: Series diodes carry identical current: Two diodes are connected in series in the same branch. The first diode has a forward voltage of 0.75 V and the second has 0.80 V. If the current through the first diode is 500 mA, what is the current through th…

Introduction / Context: In any series branch, the same current flows through all components because there is only one path for charge. This applies to resistors, diodes, LEDs, and other two-terminal devices. Forward voltage drops may differ between devices, but that does not change the equality of current in series. Given Data / Assumptions: Two diodes in series in one branch. Measured/assumed forward drops: 0.75 V and 0.80 V. Measured current through the first diode: 500 mA. Concept / Approach: Series-circuit rule: the same current passes sequentially through each element in the branch. The supply must provide a voltage equal to the sum of all drops (including any series resistor), but the current is identical through both diodes at any instant in steady operation. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify topology: single series path → same current everywhere in that path.Measured I through diode 1 = 500 mA.Thus I through diode 2 = 500 mA.Total forward drop across both diodes = 0.75 V + 0.80 V = 1.55 V (for completeness). Verification / Alternative check: Use ammeter placement thought-experiment: moving a series ammeter from one diode to the other cannot change the reading if there are no parallel branches. Why Other Options Are Wrong: (b), (c), (d), and (e) suggest different currents despite a single series path, which violates the series current rule. Common Pitfalls: Confusing different forward voltage drops with different currents in series; mixing series behavior with parallel branches where currents can differ. Final Answer: 500 mA

Q: In atomic structure, how many protons are present in the nucleus of a copper atom (its atomic number determines the proton count)?

Introduction / Context: The atomic number of an element equals the number of protons in its nucleus. This number uniquely identifies the element and defines its position in the periodic table, its electron configuration in the neutral state, and its chemical behavior. Copper is a common conductor in electronics, wiring, and printed circuit boards, so recognizing its atomic properties is practical background knowledge for engineers and technicians. Given Data / Assumptions: We are dealing with elemental copper (Cu). The question seeks proton count, not neutrons or electrons (though a neutral atom has equal electrons and protons). Standard periodic table values apply. Concept / Approach: The atomic number Z is the key. For copper, Z = 29. Therefore, the nucleus contains 29 protons. While isotopes differ by neutron count, proton count does not change for a given element. Knowledge of Z helps in understanding electron shells (e.g., copper’s common valence behavior) and why copper is an excellent conductor with a single s-electron contributing strongly to conduction. Step-by-Step Solution: Recall copper’s symbol and periodic position: Cu, period 4, transition metal.Identify atomic number Z for Cu: 29.Proton count equals Z: 29 protons.Select option “29.” Verification / Alternative check: Consult any periodic table: Cu listed with atomic number 29. Neutral copper has 29 electrons to balance its 29-proton nucleus, confirming consistency. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 1 and 4 correspond to hydrogen and beryllium; 18 corresponds to argon; none match copper. “None of the above” is wrong because the correct value is available. Common Pitfalls: Confusing mass number (protons+neutrons) with atomic number; mixing copper’s common oxidation states (+1, +2) with proton count. Final Answer: 29

Q: Inductance definition: one henry is the inductance that produces a counter electromotive force (emf) of 1 V when the current through the inductor changes at the rate of 1 A per second (E = −L * di/dt).

Introduction / Context: Inductors oppose changes in current. The quantitative relationship between changing current and the induced counter electromotive force (back emf) is captured by Faraday’s law specialized for inductance: E = −L * di/dt. Understanding the unit “henry” is essential for circuit analysis, filter design, and power electronics where transient behavior matters. Given Data / Assumptions: E denotes induced voltage (volts). L denotes inductance (henries). di/dt denotes the rate of change of current (amperes per second). We are using SI units. Concept / Approach: By definition, if di/dt = 1 A/s and the induced emf magnitude is 1 V, then L = 1 H. In practical terms, an inductor of 1 H will produce 1 V of back emf when its current ramps at 1 A every second. This simple proportionality underpins how inductors smooth current (low di/dt for given voltage) or, conversely, how a given ramp demands a specific voltage across the inductor. Step-by-Step Solution: Start with E = −L * di/dt.Set E = 1 V, di/dt = 1 A/s.Solve for L: L = 1 V / (1 A/s) = 1 H.Therefore, the statement of one henry matches option B. Verification / Alternative check: Check dimensional consistency: volt = henry * ampere/second → henry = volt * second / ampere, which is the SI unit definition for inductance. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Option A speaks about “reducing current to 1 A,” not a rate of change. Option C incorrectly ties inductance to frequency change directly. Option D is not a unit definition; turns and current relate to magnetomotive force, not the unit henry alone. “None” is wrong because B states the correct definition. Common Pitfalls: Ignoring the negative sign (which only indicates polarity opposing current change); conflating stored energy (0.5 * L * I^2) with the unit definition. Final Answer: the amount of inductance required for generating 1 V of counter emf when the current changes at the rate of 1 A per second

Q: A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) carries a collector current of 2 mA. If the current gain (beta, β) is 135, what is the base current I_B in microamperes?

Introduction / Context: For a bipolar junction transistor (BJT) operating in the forward-active region, the small base current controls a much larger collector current. The DC current gain, beta (β), defines this relationship and is a staple calculation in analog electronics and bias network design. Correctly converting among milliampere and microampere units and using the β relation is essential to size bias resistors and estimate input drive requirements. Given Data / Assumptions: Collector current I_C = 2 mA. Current gain β = 135 (I_C / I_B). Assume forward-active operation and negligible leakage. Concept / Approach: The relationship is I_C = β * I_B, or equivalently I_B = I_C / β. Because units are mixed (mA vs µA), convert carefully: 1 mA = 1000 µA. After computing I_B, compare with the listed options. Step-by-Step Solution: Write the formula: I_B = I_C / β.Substitute: I_B = 2 mA / 135.Convert units: 2 mA = 2000 µA → I_B = 2000 µA / 135.Compute: 2000 / 135 ≈ 14.81 µA → round to 14.8 µA. Verification / Alternative check: Reverse-multiply to confirm: 14.8 µA * 135 ≈ 1998 µA ≈ 1.998 mA, which rounds to the given 2 mA. The small rounding error is expected from decimal truncation and is within typical component tolerance bands. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 10.3 µA, 7.8 µA, and 7.75 µA correspond to incorrect β usage or arithmetic. “None of the above” is false because 14.8 µA matches the computed value. Common Pitfalls: Forgetting to convert mA to µA; using α (common-base gain) instead of β; assuming β is constant across operating points—it varies with current and temperature, so designs should include margin. Final Answer: 14.8 µA

Q: Thevenin–Norton equivalence: The Thevenin resistance seen at a circuit’s output terminals is equal to what quantity?

Introduction / Context: Thevenin’s theorem simplifies a linear network to a voltage source in series with a resistance as seen by a load. Correctly identifying the Thevenin resistance is essential for matching, maximum power transfer analysis, and quick hand calculations. Given Data / Assumptions: Circuit is linear and time-invariant around the operating point. Independent sources may be present (voltage or current). We examine the resistance “seen” at the load terminals. Concept / Approach: The Thevenin resistance R_th equals the input resistance looking back into the network with all independent sources turned off (voltage sources replaced by their internal resistances, ideal ones shorted; current sources opened). This resistance also equals the Norton resistance R_no for the Norton equivalent, since the two models are duals. Step-by-Step Solution: Remove the load to expose the output terminals.Turn off all independent sources (short ideal voltage sources, open ideal current sources).Calculate the equivalent resistance seen into the network; this is R_th.Note: Dependent sources remain active; use a test source method if needed. Verification / Alternative check: Compute open-circuit voltage V_oc and short-circuit current I_sc. Then R_th = V_oc / I_sc, which must match the resistance obtained with sources turned off. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Load resistance / half load: R_th is a property of the source network, not the attached load.Open-load resistance of the load: unrelated; concerns the load device, not the network.None: incorrect because the standard definition is provided. Common Pitfalls: Turning off dependent sources (do not); forgetting to account for internal source resistances; mixing up R_th with matched load conditions. Final Answer: The equivalent resistance seen at the output terminals with all independent sources turned off (same as Norton resistance)

Question 1

Series diode with resistor (Ohm’s law application): A diode is in series with a 220 Ω resistor. If the measured voltage across the resistor is 4 V, what is the current through the diode?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: In a simple series circuit, the same current flows through all series components. If you know the voltage across the series resistor, Ohm’s law directly gives the current in the entire branch, including the diode. This is a staple calculation in basic electronics troubleshooting and lab measurements. Given Data / Assumptions: Series components: diode + 220 Ω resistor. Measured V across the resistor = 4 V. Ideal meter and steady-state conditions. Concept / Approach: Ohm’s law: I = V/R. In a series branch, current is identical through each element. Therefore, current through the resistor equals current through the diode. The diode’s forward drop is irrelevant here because we are not asked for supply voltage, only the branch current. Step-by-Step Solution: Use Ohm’s law: I = V/R.Substitute: I = 4 V / 220 Ω.Compute: 4 / 220 ≈ 0.01818 A.Convert to mA: ≈ 18.18 mA ≈ 18.2 mA. Verification / Alternative check: A quick mental check: 4/200 = 0.02 A → 20 mA; with 220 Ω it should be slightly less, about 18 mA—consistent with 18.2 mA. Why Other Options Are Wrong: (a) and (b) are unrealistically large by orders of magnitude. (d) 16.3 mA does not match 4/220 precisely. “None” is unnecessary since a precise match exists. Common Pitfalls: Using the diode drop to compute current even though the question already gives the resistor voltage; mixing up series versus parallel current rules. Final Answer: 18.2 mA

Question 2

Semiconductor fundamentals: What is the process called when a free electron and a hole combine within a semiconductor material?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Carrier dynamics—generation and recombination—govern how diodes, transistors, and optoelectronic devices behave. When excess carriers are introduced (by doping, biasing, or illumination), their lifetimes and recombination rates directly impact current flow and device response. Given Data / Assumptions: Semiconductor with electrons (negative carriers) and holes (positive carriers). Normal temperature operation with possible thermal generation. Focus on naming the carrier combination process. Concept / Approach: When a mobile electron falls into a hole (an empty state in the valence band), both carriers annihilate as free carriers, and energy is released (as heat or photons depending on material). This specific event is called recombination. It is distinct from the concept of lifetime (average carrier persistence) or covalent bonding (fixed bonds in the crystal lattice). Step-by-Step Solution: Define event: electron meets hole and eliminates free-carrier pair.Name the process: recombination.Note energy paths: non-radiative (phonons/heat) or radiative (photons in LEDs/lasers). Verification / Alternative check: Device I–V curves and photoluminescence experiments consistently rely on recombination phenomena to explain observed behavior. Why Other Options Are Wrong: (a) Covalent bonding is the static lattice bond, not a dynamic carrier event. (b) Lifetime quantifies average time before recombination; it is not the event itself. (d) Thermal energy is a cause or byproduct, not the name of the process. Common Pitfalls: Equating lifetime with recombination; assuming all recombination emits light (only in direct bandgap materials is radiative recombination strong). Final Answer: Recombination

Question 3

Series circuit voltage law (KVL application): Which statement correctly describes the total voltage in a series circuit with several elements?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around any closed loop is zero. In a series circuit driven by a source, this implies the source voltage equals the sum of the voltage drops across each series element. This rule underpins practical measurements and design checks in power supplies and analog signal chains. Given Data / Assumptions: Series connection (single loop) of multiple components. Ideal wiring (negligible wire resistance). Steady-state conditions. Concept / Approach: KVL: ΣV = 0 around a loop. If the source provides V_s and the drops are V_1, V_2, …, V_n, then V_s − (V_1 + … + V_n) = 0 → V_s = V_1 + … + V_n. This is a direct and general result independent of the types of series components (R, L, C, or semiconductors in steady state). Step-by-Step Solution: Identify all series elements and measure individual drops.Apply KVL across the loop.Sum the individual voltages and equate to source.Confirm arithmetic: the sum must match the source within measurement error. Verification / Alternative check: Use a DMM to measure each drop and the source; summing the measured drops should reproduce the source voltage—an effective diagnostic for wiring or component faults. Why Other Options Are Wrong: (b) “Average” is not a circuit law. (c) V = I*R_total applies only if all elements are resistive; still, the correct statement is about the sum of drops. (d) The total cannot be smaller than each individual drop in a series sum. Common Pitfalls: Forgetting to account for device polarities; misreading AC RMS versus peak quantities when summing. Final Answer: The total voltage is equal to the sum of the individual voltages in a series circuit.

Question 4

Transistor load line intuition (Q-point movement): As the operating point (Q point) slides along a fixed DC load line, how does the collector-to-emitter voltage behave when the collector current changes?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: A DC load line on the I_C–V_CE plane represents the constraint V_CE = V_CC − I_C * R_C for a given supply and collector resistor. The Q point is where device characteristics meet this line. Understanding how V_CE and I_C trade off along the line is fundamental for biasing and avoiding saturation/cutoff in amplifiers. Given Data / Assumptions: Fixed V_CC and collector resistor R_C. Operating point varies along the straight load line. Small-signal effects ignored; purely DC relation considered. Concept / Approach: From V_CE = V_CC − I_C * R_C, V_CE is an affine decreasing function of I_C. Therefore, when I_C decreases, the subtracted term I_CR_C becomes smaller, so V_CE increases. Conversely, when I_C rises, V_CE drops, approaching saturation at low V_CE. Step-by-Step Solution: Write the load-line equation: V_CE = V_CC − I_CR_C.Treat V_CC and R_C as constants.Differentiate or reason: dV_CE/dI_C = −R_C < 0 → V_CE decreases as I_C increases.Therefore, if current decreases, voltage increases. Verification / Alternative check: Plot the endpoints: at I_C = 0, V_CE = V_CC (top-right). At V_CE = 0, I_C = V_CC/R_C (bottom-left). Movement along the line confirms the inverse relationship. Why Other Options Are Wrong: (b) V_CE cannot remain constant if I_C varies along a fixed line. (c) Claims the opposite trend. (d) The load line is a single straight relation; only one monotonic trend exists. Common Pitfalls: Confusing AC load lines or dynamic curves; overlooking saturation and cutoff limits. Final Answer: Voltage increases when current decreases.

Question 5

Bipolar transistor current gain (β) relation: If the current gain β = I_C / I_B is 200 and the collector current I_C is 100 mA, what is the base current I_B?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: The small-signal or DC current gain of a BJT is defined as β = I_C / I_B. Rearranging gives I_B = I_C / β. This quick calculation appears frequently in biasing design and when estimating drive requirements from preceding stages or controllers. Given Data / Assumptions: I_C = 100 mA. β = 200 (dimensionless). Steady-state DC bias; ignore leakage currents. Concept / Approach: Use the definition of current gain to solve for the unknown base current. Ensure units are consistent and convert the final result to mA for clarity. Step-by-Step Solution: Start with β = I_C / I_B.Rearrange: I_B = I_C / β.Substitute: I_B = 100 mA / 200 = 0.5 mA.State clearly: base current is 0.5 mA. Verification / Alternative check: Back-check: β * I_B = 200 * 0.5 mA = 100 mA = I_C, confirming consistency. Why Other Options Are Wrong: (a) 2 mA would imply β = 50. (c) and (d) are wildly off by orders of magnitude. “None” is unnecessary since an exact match exists. Common Pitfalls: Unit mix-ups (mA vs A) and arithmetic slips when dividing by β. Final Answer: 0.5 mA

Question 6

Series diodes carry identical current: Two diodes are connected in series in the same branch. The first diode has a forward voltage of 0.75 V and the second has 0.80 V. If the current through the first diode is 500 mA, what is the current through th…

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: In any series branch, the same current flows through all components because there is only one path for charge. This applies to resistors, diodes, LEDs, and other two-terminal devices. Forward voltage drops may differ between devices, but that does not change the equality of current in series. Given Data / Assumptions: Two diodes in series in one branch. Measured/assumed forward drops: 0.75 V and 0.80 V. Measured current through the first diode: 500 mA. Concept / Approach: Series-circuit rule: the same current passes sequentially through each element in the branch. The supply must provide a voltage equal to the sum of all drops (including any series resistor), but the current is identical through both diodes at any instant in steady operation. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify topology: single series path → same current everywhere in that path.Measured I through diode 1 = 500 mA.Thus I through diode 2 = 500 mA.Total forward drop across both diodes = 0.75 V + 0.80 V = 1.55 V (for completeness). Verification / Alternative check: Use ammeter placement thought-experiment: moving a series ammeter from one diode to the other cannot change the reading if there are no parallel branches. Why Other Options Are Wrong: (b), (c), (d), and (e) suggest different currents despite a single series path, which violates the series current rule. Common Pitfalls: Confusing different forward voltage drops with different currents in series; mixing series behavior with parallel branches where currents can differ. Final Answer: 500 mA

Question 7

In basic transducer theory and instrumentation, which device directly converts applied mechanical pressure or stress into measurable electrical energy (voltage or charge) suitable for sensing and control?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Engineers frequently need to convert a physical quantity into an electrical signal that can be measured, recorded, or used for feedback control. Pressure, force, and acceleration are common mechanical stimuli. The device class that turns mechanical stress directly into electrical energy is crucial in mechatronics, structural health monitoring, automotive knock sensing, and medical devices such as ultrasound transducers. This question tests recognition of the correct transduction principle and the appropriate example device. Given Data / Assumptions: We are interested in conversion from mechanical pressure/stress to an electrical output. The options include devices known for other energy conversions (light to electricity, chemical to electricity). Room-temperature, passive sensing behavior is implied (no exotic excitation required to create the signal). Concept / Approach: The piezoelectric effect produces charge separation in certain crystals and ceramics when they are mechanically stressed. The generated charge Q is approximately proportional to applied force F (Q = d * F, where d is the piezoelectric charge constant). With appropriate circuitry, this charge appears as a measurable voltage across the element. By contrast, a solar cell relies on the photovoltaic effect (light to electricity), a photodiode converts light intensity to current, and a nickel–cadmium (Ni-Cd) cell is an electrochemical energy storage device (chemical to electrical). Only the piezoelectric element natively converts mechanical stress into electrical energy. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the required conversion: mechanical pressure → electrical energy.Recall device principles: piezoelectric (stress→charge), photovoltaic (light→current), photodiode (light→current), Ni-Cd (chemical→electric).Match the only device with stress-to-electric conversion: piezoelectric device.Select option “piezoelectric device.” Verification / Alternative check: Common pressure sensors and accelerometers use piezoelectric disks or beams. When you tap a piezo buzzer element, it produces a voltage spike measurable on a voltmeter or oscilloscope, confirming mechanical-to-electrical conversion without illumination or chemical reaction. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Solar cell: converts photons to electrical energy, not pressure. Photodiode: detects light, not stress. Ni-Cd cell: provides electrical energy from electrochemical reactions; pressure does not generate its output. “None of the above” cannot be correct because a valid device exists (piezoelectric). Common Pitfalls: Confusing piezoelectric sensing with strain gauges (resistance change, not direct charge generation). Forgetting that photonic devices require light. Assuming batteries convert any stimulus to electricity; they only store/release chemical energy. Final Answer: piezoelectric device

Question 8

In solid-state physics, consider a good electrical conductor (metal) at room temperature: how many “holes” are effectively present compared with free electrons?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: In semiconductors, we routinely speak of two types of mobile charge carriers: electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence band. In metals (good conductors), the situation is different: the conduction band is partially filled, and electrical conduction is dominated by electrons. Understanding the relative presence of “holes” in a metal versus electrons clarifies why metals behave differently from semiconductors and why device physics uses different models for each material class. Given Data / Assumptions: Material: a typical good conductor (e.g., copper, aluminum) at room temperature. Carriers in metals are overwhelmingly electrons. “Holes” here refers to the semiconductor concept of missing electrons in the valence band acting as positive carriers. Concept / Approach: A metal’s Fermi level lies within a conduction band (or overlaps bands), so many electronic states are available near that energy. Electrical conduction is well described by an electron gas model (Drude or free-electron model). The “hole” concept is not a dominant or convenient description in metals at room temperature. If one insists on describing positive effective carriers, their density is negligible compared with the enormous concentration of conduction electrons. Hence, the most accurate comparative statement is that holes are far fewer than free electrons in a metal at room temperature. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify material class: metal (conductor), not a doped semiconductor.Recall carrier picture: electron-dominated conduction; valence-band holes are not the primary carriers.Compare populations: hole density ≪ electron density in metals at room temperature.Select the option that states “less than the free electrons.” Verification / Alternative check: Contrast with intrinsic silicon: n ≈ p at a given temperature. In a metal, the free-electron density (~10^28 m^-3) dwarfs any meaningful “hole” population used in semiconductor models, validating the selection. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Same number as free electrons: true only for intrinsic semiconductors (n = p), not metals. “many”: too vague and misleading; does not reflect the dominance of electrons. “Only those produced by thermal energy”: suggests a semiconductor-like intrinsic generation picture, not appropriate for metals. “None of the above” is incorrect because a correct comparative statement exists. Common Pitfalls: Assuming the n = p relation from intrinsic semiconductors carries over to metals; overgeneralizing the “hole” concept beyond its useful semiconductor context. Metals conduct primarily through electrons in partially filled bands. Final Answer: less than the free electrons

Question 9

In diode theory, what is the typical barrier (junction) potential of a silicon pn junction at room temperature under zero bias conditions?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Every pn junction develops a built-in potential barrier due to the diffusion of carriers and the resulting electric field across the depletion region. This built-in barrier is a key parameter in understanding forward conduction thresholds and turn-on behavior in rectifiers, signal diodes, and transistor junctions. Silicon and germanium devices differ in their typical values at room temperature, and recognizing the approximate number is a foundational electronics skill. Given Data / Assumptions: Material: silicon (not germanium or compound semiconductors). Temperature: room temperature (~25 °C). Operating condition: near-zero bias to define the typical “barrier” or forward knee region value used in circuit approximations. Concept / Approach: For silicon diodes, the forward conduction knee is often approximated as ~0.7 V in laboratory and circuit analysis problems. In reality, the built-in potential (V_bi) and the forward conduction voltage (V_f) are not identical concepts, but for practical analysis the ~0.7 V figure serves as a rule-of-thumb for forward-biased silicon junctions at room temperature, whereas germanium diodes are commonly approximated at ~0.3 V. Temperature and current level modify the exact V_f due to the diode equation I = I_s * (e^(V_d/(n*V_T)) - 1). Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the material: silicon → expect ~0.7 V forward conduction reference.Recall the common approximation taught for hand analysis of circuits.Select 0.7 V as the most accurate among the choices. Verification / Alternative check: Compare with germanium (~0.3 V) and with silicon Schottky diodes (~0.2–0.4 V). The given 0.7 V aligns with standard silicon pn junction behavior in textbooks and lab practice at room temperature. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 0.3 V is typical for germanium, not silicon. 1 V is too high for standard small-signal silicon diodes at room temperature. “2 m V per degree Celsius” refers to temperature coefficient of V_f, not the barrier value itself. “None” is incorrect because 0.7 V is the accepted approximation. Common Pitfalls: Confusing built-in potential with forward drop under load; ignoring the strong dependence on current and temperature; applying the same value to Schottky or Ge devices. Final Answer: 0.7V

Question 10

In atomic structure, how many protons are present in the nucleus of a copper atom (its atomic number determines the proton count)?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: The atomic number of an element equals the number of protons in its nucleus. This number uniquely identifies the element and defines its position in the periodic table, its electron configuration in the neutral state, and its chemical behavior. Copper is a common conductor in electronics, wiring, and printed circuit boards, so recognizing its atomic properties is practical background knowledge for engineers and technicians. Given Data / Assumptions: We are dealing with elemental copper (Cu). The question seeks proton count, not neutrons or electrons (though a neutral atom has equal electrons and protons). Standard periodic table values apply. Concept / Approach: The atomic number Z is the key. For copper, Z = 29. Therefore, the nucleus contains 29 protons. While isotopes differ by neutron count, proton count does not change for a given element. Knowledge of Z helps in understanding electron shells (e.g., copper’s common valence behavior) and why copper is an excellent conductor with a single s-electron contributing strongly to conduction. Step-by-Step Solution: Recall copper’s symbol and periodic position: Cu, period 4, transition metal.Identify atomic number Z for Cu: 29.Proton count equals Z: 29 protons.Select option “29.” Verification / Alternative check: Consult any periodic table: Cu listed with atomic number 29. Neutral copper has 29 electrons to balance its 29-proton nucleus, confirming consistency. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 1 and 4 correspond to hydrogen and beryllium; 18 corresponds to argon; none match copper. “None of the above” is wrong because the correct value is available. Common Pitfalls: Confusing mass number (protons+neutrons) with atomic number; mixing copper’s common oxidation states (+1, +2) with proton count. Final Answer: 29

Question 11

Inductance definition: one henry is the inductance that produces a counter electromotive force (emf) of 1 V when the current through the inductor changes at the rate of 1 A per second (E = −L * di/dt).

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Inductors oppose changes in current. The quantitative relationship between changing current and the induced counter electromotive force (back emf) is captured by Faraday’s law specialized for inductance: E = −L * di/dt. Understanding the unit “henry” is essential for circuit analysis, filter design, and power electronics where transient behavior matters. Given Data / Assumptions: E denotes induced voltage (volts). L denotes inductance (henries). di/dt denotes the rate of change of current (amperes per second). We are using SI units. Concept / Approach: By definition, if di/dt = 1 A/s and the induced emf magnitude is 1 V, then L = 1 H. In practical terms, an inductor of 1 H will produce 1 V of back emf when its current ramps at 1 A every second. This simple proportionality underpins how inductors smooth current (low di/dt for given voltage) or, conversely, how a given ramp demands a specific voltage across the inductor. Step-by-Step Solution: Start with E = −L * di/dt.Set E = 1 V, di/dt = 1 A/s.Solve for L: L = 1 V / (1 A/s) = 1 H.Therefore, the statement of one henry matches option B. Verification / Alternative check: Check dimensional consistency: volt = henry * ampere/second → henry = volt * second / ampere, which is the SI unit definition for inductance. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Option A speaks about “reducing current to 1 A,” not a rate of change. Option C incorrectly ties inductance to frequency change directly. Option D is not a unit definition; turns and current relate to magnetomotive force, not the unit henry alone. “None” is wrong because B states the correct definition. Common Pitfalls: Ignoring the negative sign (which only indicates polarity opposing current change); conflating stored energy (0.5 * L * I^2) with the unit definition. Final Answer: the amount of inductance required for generating 1 V of counter emf when the current changes at the rate of 1 A per second

Question 12

In capacitor construction, which arrangement correctly describes a basic capacitor used in electronics: what materials are separated by what?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: A capacitor stores energy in the electric field between two separated conductors. Its simplest physical form is two plates with an insulating material between them. Recognizing the correct construction helps in understanding capacitance formulas, breakdown voltage, leakage, and how material choices affect performance in power supplies, RF circuits, and signal coupling/decoupling applications. Given Data / Assumptions: Idealized basic capacitor model. Focus on structural arrangement, not specific dielectric types. Standard electronic components (not exotic structures). Concept / Approach: Capacitance C depends on plate area A, plate separation d, and dielectric constant k: C = k * epsilon_0 * A / d. This relationship assumes two conductive plates (electrodes) separated by a dielectric (insulator). Coils are associated with inductors, not capacitors, and “two dielectrics separated by a conductor” inverts the proper arrangement. Correct identification of the structure is fundamental to predicting how geometry and materials change capacitance and voltage rating. Step-by-Step Solution: Recall the definition of capacitance: charge stored per volt (C = Q/V).Map the physical meaning: electric field confined in a dielectric between conductors.Identify the arrangement that yields this field: two conductors with a dielectric between them.Select option A. Verification / Alternative check: Look at common parts: ceramic multilayer capacitors, aluminum electrolytics, film capacitors—all consist of conductive foils or electrodes separated by a dielectric layer. This confirms the general structural statement. Why Other Options Are Wrong: B reverses conductor/insulator roles. C and D describe coils, which define inductors, not capacitors. “None” fails because A captures the textbook construction. Common Pitfalls: Confusing dielectric breakdown limits with conductor spacing only; ignoring that real capacitors include parasitic inductance and resistance, but those do not alter the core plate-dielectric-plate construction. Final Answer: two conductors separated by a dielectric

Question 13

A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) carries a collector current of 2 mA. If the current gain (beta, β) is 135, what is the base current I_B in microamperes?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: For a bipolar junction transistor (BJT) operating in the forward-active region, the small base current controls a much larger collector current. The DC current gain, beta (β), defines this relationship and is a staple calculation in analog electronics and bias network design. Correctly converting among milliampere and microampere units and using the β relation is essential to size bias resistors and estimate input drive requirements. Given Data / Assumptions: Collector current I_C = 2 mA. Current gain β = 135 (I_C / I_B). Assume forward-active operation and negligible leakage. Concept / Approach: The relationship is I_C = β * I_B, or equivalently I_B = I_C / β. Because units are mixed (mA vs µA), convert carefully: 1 mA = 1000 µA. After computing I_B, compare with the listed options. Step-by-Step Solution: Write the formula: I_B = I_C / β.Substitute: I_B = 2 mA / 135.Convert units: 2 mA = 2000 µA → I_B = 2000 µA / 135.Compute: 2000 / 135 ≈ 14.81 µA → round to 14.8 µA. Verification / Alternative check: Reverse-multiply to confirm: 14.8 µA * 135 ≈ 1998 µA ≈ 1.998 mA, which rounds to the given 2 mA. The small rounding error is expected from decimal truncation and is within typical component tolerance bands. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 10.3 µA, 7.8 µA, and 7.75 µA correspond to incorrect β usage or arithmetic. “None of the above” is false because 14.8 µA matches the computed value. Common Pitfalls: Forgetting to convert mA to µA; using α (common-base gain) instead of β; assuming β is constant across operating points—it varies with current and temperature, so designs should include margin. Final Answer: 14.8 µA

Question 14

In power electronics and rectifier theory, which description best characterizes a pulsating DC voltage waveform?

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Introduction / Context: Pulsating DC appears at the output of rectifier circuits before filtering. It is not pure DC (constant level) nor pure AC (alternating polarity). Recognizing the waveform’s essential properties matters when specifying filters, ripple voltage tolerances, and load regulation. This question contrasts pulsating DC with steady DC and true AC waveforms. Given Data / Assumptions: Consider typical rectifier outputs (half-wave or full-wave) without smoothing capacitors. Polarity relative to a reference (ground) is maintained for pulsating DC. Periodicity is due to the rectified mains or source frequency. Concept / Approach: Pulsating DC is characterized by unidirectional polarity with time-varying magnitude. A half-wave rectifier yields pulses separated by zero intervals; a full-wave rectifier yields more frequent pulses at twice the AC input frequency. Only after adding filters (capacitors, inductors, or regulators) does the waveform approach steady DC. If the polarity reverses, the signal is AC, not pulsating DC. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the polarity behavior: remains one-sided (positive or negative with respect to ground).Identify magnitude behavior: varies over time, peaking and dropping periodically.Match to the option that explicitly states “one polarity but changes value periodically.”Select option B. Verification / Alternative check: Examine oscilloscope traces of a bridge-rectified sine wave before the filter: all peaks are above zero, but the level rises and falls each half-cycle, confirming the definition. Why Other Options Are Wrong: A describes regulated DC, not pulsating. C is physically contradictory (current cannot flow in two opposite directions simultaneously through a simple two-terminal element). D describes AC, which alternates polarity. “None” is incorrect because option B is precise. Common Pitfalls: Equating “pulsating” with “alternating”; forgetting that “DC” in this context means unidirectional, not necessarily constant magnitude. Final Answer: The voltage remains at one polarity but changes value periodically

Question 15

For AC circuit analysis, what is the equivalent impedance magnitude of a 100 Ω resistor connected in parallel with a pure inductor whose reactance X_L is 200 Ω?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Combining resistive and reactive elements in parallel is a common task in AC circuit design, filter synthesis, and impedance matching. Unlike series combinations that add directly, parallel combinations interact through admittances. Computing the equivalent impedance helps predict current sharing, phase angle, and power factor. This problem asks for the magnitude of the impedance of a resistor in parallel with a purely inductive reactance. Given Data / Assumptions: R = 100 Ω (purely resistive). X_L = 200 Ω (purely inductive, reactance +j200 Ω). Elements are connected in parallel at a single frequency. We seek the magnitude |Z_eq|. Concept / Approach: Use complex impedance algebra. For R in parallel with jX: Z_eq = (R * jX) / (R + jX). The magnitude simplifies to |Z_eq| = (R * X) / sqrt(R^2 + X^2) because |j| = 1 and magnitude of the denominator is sqrt(R^2 + X^2). Plug in R = 100 and X = 200. This approach avoids converting to admittances explicitly while remaining exact for a pure reactance in parallel with a resistor. Step-by-Step Solution: Write Z_R = 100, Z_L = j200.Compute product magnitude: |Z_R * Z_L| = |100 * j200| = 20000.Compute denominator magnitude: |Z_R + Z_L| = |100 + j200| = sqrt(100^2 + 200^2) = sqrt(50000) ≈ 223.606.Compute |Z_eq| = 20000 / 223.606 ≈ 89.44 Ω.Match the closest listed value → 89.3 Ω. Verification / Alternative check: Admittance method: Y = 1/100 + 1/(j200) = 0.01 − j0.005 S. |Y| = sqrt(0.01^2 + (−0.005)^2) ≈ 0.01118 S → |Z| = 1/|Y| ≈ 89.44 Ω. Same result confirms correctness. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 77.7 Ω and 88.8 Ω are off the precise computation. 224 Ω is roughly the denominator magnitude, not the final impedance. “None” is incorrect because 89.3 Ω matches the calculation within rounding. Common Pitfalls: Adding impedances in parallel as if they were series; forgetting to take magnitudes; mixing up admittance and impedance or losing the j sign; rounding too early, which introduces noticeable error. Final Answer: 89.3 ohm

Question 16

In a parallel RLC circuit operating exactly at its resonant frequency, how are the inductive reactance (X_L) and capacitive reactance (X_C) related?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Resonance is a fundamental phenomenon in AC circuits, filters, and RF design. In a parallel RLC network, resonance yields desirable properties like maximized impedance magnitude and minimal reactive current at the resonant frequency. Recognizing the condition that defines resonance is vital for tuning circuits and understanding bandwidth and quality factor (Q). Given Data / Assumptions: Parallel connection of ideal R, L, and C. Operation at the exact resonant frequency f_0. Focus on the relationship between X_L and X_C. Concept / Approach: At resonance in either series or parallel RLC, the magnitudes of the reactive impedances are equal and opposite: X_L = 2 * pi * f_0 * L and X_C = 1 / (2 * pi * f_0 * C). The resonance condition is X_L = X_C in magnitude. In a parallel circuit, this equality causes the reactive branch admittances to cancel, leaving a predominantly resistive input admittance and a high equivalent impedance, which is exploited in tank circuits and oscillators. Step-by-Step Solution: Write X_L = 2 * pi * f * L; X_C = 1 / (2 * pi * f * C).Set resonance condition: X_L = X_C (magnitudes equal).At f = f_0, reactive effects cancel, so net susceptance is near zero.Therefore, choose “inductive reactance is equal to the capacitive reactance.” Verification / Alternative check: For a given L and C, solve f_0 = 1 / (2 * pi * sqrt(L * C)). Substituting f_0 back into X_L and X_C yields equal magnitudes, confirming the condition. Why Other Options Are Wrong: A and B contradict the resonance condition; D introduces resistance into the equality, which is not the defining relation for resonance; “None” is wrong because the equality is the standard rule. Common Pitfalls: Confusing series with parallel resonance effects on impedance magnitude; forgetting that equality refers to magnitudes, while the signs are opposite (inductive positive, capacitive negative susceptance). Final Answer: inductive reactance is equal to the capacitive reactance

Question 17

In AC circuit theory, current and voltage are said to be “in phase” when their time-varying waveforms cross zero together and reach positive and negative peaks at the same instants (same phase angle), regardless of amplitude. Which statement capture…

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: In alternating-current (AC) analysis, “in phase” describes a precise timing relationship between two sinusoidal quantities such as voltage and current. When two sinusoids are in phase, their instantaneous values rise and fall together with no time lead or lag. This is fundamental for understanding power factor, reactive elements, and resonance. Given Data / Assumptions: Both signals are periodic sinusoids at the same frequency. We are comparing the timing of their zero crossings and peaks. Amplitude equality is not required for phase equality. Concept / Approach: Phase angle describes the shift between two sinusoids of the same frequency. A phase angle of 0 degrees means the waveforms reach corresponding points (zero crossings, peaks, troughs) at the same instants. Different amplitudes do not change phase; a larger amplitude simply scales the waveform vertically. Likewise, being both AC or both DC does not define phase; DC has no phase in the sinusoidal sense. Step-by-Step Solution: Define in-phase: phase angle = 0 degrees.Identify practical test: simultaneous zero crossings and simultaneous positive/negative peaks.Note that amplitude equality is unnecessary; only timing matters.Select the statement that states the timing criterion explicitly. Verification / Alternative check: Express sinusoids as v = Vpsin(ωt) and i = Ipsin(ωt + φ). If φ = 0, v and i reach all characteristic points simultaneously. Oscilloscope Lissajous figures for in-phase signals show a straight line with positive slope when scales match. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Both AC or both DC: does not define phase alignment.Same amplitude and frequency: amplitude is irrelevant to phase; frequency must match but that alone does not guarantee zero phase shift.All of the above: includes incorrect conditions, therefore false. Common Pitfalls: Confusing equal amplitude with equal phase; forgetting that equal frequency without specifying phase could still mean a lead/lag. Final Answer: their waveforms cross through zero and reach positive and negative peaks at the same time

Question 18

Thevenin–Norton equivalence: The Thevenin resistance seen at a circuit’s output terminals is equal to what quantity?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Thevenin’s theorem simplifies a linear network to a voltage source in series with a resistance as seen by a load. Correctly identifying the Thevenin resistance is essential for matching, maximum power transfer analysis, and quick hand calculations. Given Data / Assumptions: Circuit is linear and time-invariant around the operating point. Independent sources may be present (voltage or current). We examine the resistance “seen” at the load terminals. Concept / Approach: The Thevenin resistance R_th equals the input resistance looking back into the network with all independent sources turned off (voltage sources replaced by their internal resistances, ideal ones shorted; current sources opened). This resistance also equals the Norton resistance R_no for the Norton equivalent, since the two models are duals. Step-by-Step Solution: Remove the load to expose the output terminals.Turn off all independent sources (short ideal voltage sources, open ideal current sources).Calculate the equivalent resistance seen into the network; this is R_th.Note: Dependent sources remain active; use a test source method if needed. Verification / Alternative check: Compute open-circuit voltage V_oc and short-circuit current I_sc. Then R_th = V_oc / I_sc, which must match the resistance obtained with sources turned off. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Load resistance / half load: R_th is a property of the source network, not the attached load.Open-load resistance of the load: unrelated; concerns the load device, not the network.None: incorrect because the standard definition is provided. Common Pitfalls: Turning off dependent sources (do not); forgetting to account for internal source resistances; mixing up R_th with matched load conditions. Final Answer: The equivalent resistance seen at the output terminals with all independent sources turned off (same as Norton resistance)

Question 19

Parallel RL circuit behavior: Which statement correctly describes the currents and phase relationships?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: In a parallel RL circuit, the branch currents do not add arithmetically because they are out of phase. Understanding phasor addition is crucial for computing total current, power factor, and reactive power. Given Data / Assumptions: Parallel RL, steady-state sinusoidal excitation. Same voltage across both branches. I_R is in phase with V; I_L lags V by 90 degrees. Concept / Approach: Total current is the phasor sum: I_T = I_R + I_L∠(-90°). Since the two branch currents are orthogonal in phase, their magnitudes combine by the Pythagorean relationship: |I_T| = sqrt(I_R^2 + I_L^2). This magnitude is strictly less than the arithmetic sum I_R + I_L. Step-by-Step Solution: Recognize that currents add vectorially (phasors), not arithmetically.Compute magnitude: |I_T| = sqrt(I_R^2 + I_L^2).Conclude: |I_T| < I_R + I_L because of orthogonality.Phase: I_T lags the voltage by an angle between 0 and 90 degrees for RL (not leads). Verification / Alternative check: Draw a right triangle with legs I_R (horizontal) and I_L (vertical downward for lag). The hypotenuse is I_T. Geometry confirms magnitude and lagging phase. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Arithmetic sum: ignores phase; incorrect.Same amplitude and phase: true for series current, not parallel branches with reactive elements.Leads voltage: an RL network current lags, not leads; leading occurs with capacitive effects.None: incorrect since option (c) is correct. Common Pitfalls: Adding magnitudes instead of phasors; mixing RL (lagging) with RC (leading); misreading “parallel” versus “series.” Final Answer: The total current is less than the sum of the currents through the resistor and the inductor (phasor sum)

Question 20

For normal (active-region) operation of a bipolar junction transistor (BJT), the collector–base junction must be biased in which way?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Transistor regions of operation (cutoff, active, saturation) are determined by the biases of the emitter–base and collector–base junctions. In amplifiers, BJTs are typically used in the forward-active region to provide linear gain. Given Data / Assumptions: BJT intended for linear amplification (active region). Emitter–base junction is forward-biased. Collector–base junction bias determines region along with the base–emitter bias. Concept / Approach: In forward-active operation: base–emitter is forward-biased to inject carriers, and collector–base is reverse-biased to sweep carriers into the collector. This separation allows the collector current to be controlled by base current (or base–emitter voltage) with minimal dependency on collector–emitter voltage in the active region. Step-by-Step Solution: Set V_BE forward (about 0.7 V for silicon) to allow injection from emitter to base.Set collector–base junction reverse: this widens the depletion region and pulls carriers across.Observe transistor acts as a controlled current source in the active region. Verification / Alternative check: Device I–V curves show a relatively flat I_C versus V_CE in active mode when C–B is reverse-biased, compared to saturation where both junctions are forward-biased and gain collapses. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Forward-biased: would push device toward saturation, not linear amplification.Nonconducting/open: bias is an electrical condition, not merely an open circuit.Breakdown region: unsafe for normal operation; risks device damage. Common Pitfalls: Confusing saturation (both junctions forward) with active; assuming reverse bias implies no current—collector current still flows due to injected carriers. Final Answer: Reverse-biased

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