Legacy file systems vs. DBMS: Which of the following are serious drawbacks of traditional file-based data management compared to database systems?

Introduction / Context:
Early information systems stored data in isolated application files. As organizations scaled, these file-based approaches revealed significant limitations. Database Management Systems (DBMS) emerged to address these issues with centralized schemas, integrity constraints, and declarative access (SQL). Understanding the drawbacks of file systems clarifies the motivation for DBMS adoption.

Given Data / Assumptions:

• We compare file-based management to DBMS-managed databases.
• Concerns include maintenance, consistency, and adaptability.
• We assume multi-application and multi-user usage.

Concept / Approach:
File systems often suffer from duplicated data (redundancy), tightly coupled programs (program dependence), and limited abstraction (lack of data independence). Updates can be complex because each application may maintain its own file structure and business logic, causing inconsistent data and high maintenance overhead. DBMSs mitigate these issues via schemas, constraints, transactions, and centralized control.

Step-by-Step Solution:

Verification / Alternative check:
Standard IS curricula highlight these exact disadvantages as reasons for replacing file-based systems with DBMS architectures.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

• Each single option captures only part of the problem.
• Therefore the most complete and correct choice is “All of the above.”

Common Pitfalls:
Underestimating the cost of redundancy and program dependence; failing to consider multi-application environments.

Final Answer:
All of the above