Question 1

Reproductive strategies – fragmentation In which organism does reproduction by fragmentation of filamentous cells/mycelium commonly occur?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Microorganisms reproduce in diverse ways. Besides binary fission, filamentous bacteria such as actinomycetes can propagate by fragmentation of hyphae or mycelial elements. Recognizing which genera exhibit this behavior helps identify culture morphology and interpret life cycles in environmental samples. Given Data / Assumptions: Actinomycetes form branching filaments resembling fungal hyphae. Some species release arthrospores or fragments that act as dispersal units. Typical rod and coccus bacteria divide by binary fission without mycelial fragmentation. Concept / Approach: Streptomyces, a classic actinomycete genus, produces filamentous mycelia that can fragment into viable units, contributing to colony propagation and dissemination. In contrast, Bacillus subtilis is a rod that reproduces by binary fission and forms endospores under stress; cocci like Staphylococcus and rods like E. coli do not display mycelial fragmentation. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify taxa with filamentous growth (actinomycetes).Recall that Streptomyces commonly exhibits fragmentation/arthrospore formation.Exclude non-filamentous bacteria (Bacillus, E. coli, Staphylococcus, Pseudomonas).Select Streptomyces as the correct answer. Verification / Alternative check: Microscopy of aging Streptomyces cultures shows aerial hyphae and spore chains; submerged cultures often shear into fragments that retain viability. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Bacillus subtilis: binary fission and endospore formation, not mycelial fragmentation. E. coli/Staphylococcus/Pseudomonas: non-filamentous, reproduce by fission. Common Pitfalls: Assuming all filamentous bacteria sporulate identically; fragmentation is common in actinomycetes but not in typical rods/cocci. Final Answer: Streptomyces species (actinomycetes).

Question 2

Oxygen requirements A microorganism that grows best in a low-oxygen environment (below atmospheric O₂, often requiring 2–10% O₂) is called a(n):

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Oxygen tolerance classes determine where microbes thrive and how to culture them. Some organisms require oxygen but at lower levels than are present in the atmosphere. Identifying this group is essential for diagnostics (e.g., Campylobacter, Helicobacter) and food microbiology. Given Data / Assumptions: Atmospheric oxygen is ~21% O₂. Some microbes are harmed by high O₂ but still need small amounts. Definitions distinguish obligate aerobes, obligate anaerobes, facultatives, and microaerophiles. Concept / Approach: Microaerophiles require oxygen for respiration but at concentrations lower than atmospheric (typically 2–10% O₂) and may need elevated CO₂. They possess limited defenses against reactive oxygen species, so high O₂ is inhibitory. This differentiates them from obligate aerobes (need ~21% O₂), obligate anaerobes (cannot tolerate O₂), and facultative anaerobes (grow with or without O₂). Step-by-Step Solution: Parse the definition: “best in a low-oxygen environment.”Match to category that requires O₂ but below atmospheric levels.Select 'Microaerophile' as the correct term. Verification / Alternative check: Microaerophilic incubation systems (gas packs or controlled incubators) adjust O₂ to ~5% for organisms like Campylobacter jejuni, confirming the definition. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Aerobe/obligate aerobe: prefer full atmospheric oxygen. Anaerobe: harmed by O₂. Facultative anaerobe: can grow with or without O₂; not specifically “best at low O₂.” Common Pitfalls: Confusing microaerophiles with aerotolerant anaerobes, which do not use O₂ but tolerate it. Final Answer: Microaerophile.

Question 3

Electron donors and trophic terms Microorganisms that can use reduced inorganic compounds (e.g., NH₃, H₂S, Fe²⁺, H₂) as electron donors are termed:

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Metabolic classifications include how organisms obtain electrons for energy (electron donors). Those that oxidize reduced inorganic compounds occupy key niches in biogeochemical cycles and wastewater treatment. The correct trophic term distinguishes them from microbes that oxidize organic molecules. Given Data / Assumptions: Examples of inorganic electron donors: NH₃, H₂S, Fe²⁺, H₂. Alternative donors (organic compounds) define a different category. Trophic terms may combine with energy source (photo vs chemo) and carbon source (auto vs hetero). Concept / Approach: Lithotrophs (“rock eaters”) use reduced inorganic substances as electron donors. When they derive energy from chemical reactions, they are chemolithotrophs; many are autotrophs for carbon (CO₂-fixing), such as nitrifiers and sulfur oxidizers. In contrast, organotrophs use organic compounds as electron donors; phototrophs derive energy from light; chemotrophs from chemical reactions (may be organo- or litho-). The most precise term for using inorganic electron donors is lithotrophs. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the defining feature: reduced inorganic electron donors.Map to term: lithotrophy.Select 'Lithotrophs' as the answer. Verification / Alternative check: Well-known lithotrophs include Nitrosomonas (ammonia), Acidithiobacillus (sulfur/iron), and hydrogen-oxidizing bacteria (H₂), validating the definition. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Phototrophs: defined by light as energy source, not electron donor identity. Chemotrophs: too broad; includes both organo- and litho- variants. Photo-organotrophs: implies light energy with organic electron donors; does not match inorganic donors. Organotrophs: use organic compounds as electron donors. Common Pitfalls: Failing to distinguish the three axes of classification: energy (photo/chemo), electrons (organo/litho), and carbon (hetero/auto). Final Answer: Lithotrophs.

Question 4

In microbial growth analysis, quantitative measurement of bacterial growth can be performed in multiple ways. Which of the following measurement categories are valid approaches used in laboratories and bioprocess plants to quantify growth over time?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Knowing how much a bacterial culture has grown is fundamental to microbiology and bioprocess engineering. Practitioners quantify growth to compare strains, optimize media, and control fermenters. This question asks you to recognize the three main measurement families used to assess growth and why all of them are legitimate, complementary approaches. Given Data / Assumptions: We are assessing population increase over time in batch or continuous systems. Measurements may be direct (counting) or indirect (proxies such as turbidity or heat output). Different applications require different precision and speed trade-offs. Concept / Approach: Growth can be captured as: (1) cell count (CFU via plate counts, microscopic counts with a Petroff-Hausser chamber, or flow cytometry); (2) cell mass (optical density, dry cell weight, packed cell volume, or capacitance); and (3) cell activity (metabolic rates such as oxygen uptake rate, CO2 evolution rate, ATP/viability dyes, calorimetry, or substrate/product balances). Each reveals a different aspect of the culture and together provide a robust picture of population status. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify cell count methods that enumerate cells or colonies. Recognize cell mass methods that measure biomass proxies or direct weight. Include activity-based assays that infer growth from metabolism. Since all three are valid, select the comprehensive option. Verification / Alternative check: In practice, a lab might trend OD600 (mass proxy) for speed, confirm CFU (count) for viability, and monitor oxygen uptake (activity) for process control—demonstrating that all categories are routinely used. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Each single category alone provides only a partial view; the best answer aggregates them. Common Pitfalls: Equating turbidity with viable counts without calibration; OD measures biomass (live + dead) unless paired with viability assays. Final Answer: all of these.

Question 5

An organism that invests energy to survive in habitats with low water activity (aw) by accumulating internal solutes to retain water is best described as:

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Water activity (aw) governs microbial water availability. Many environments—high salt, high sugar, or dry foods—impose osmotic stress. Microorganisms that withstand these conditions adjust their internal osmolarity to avoid dehydration. This item tests your vocabulary around osmotic stress adaptation. Given Data / Assumptions: Habitat has low aw due to solutes (NaCl, sucrose) or dryness. Microbe must prevent water loss and maintain turgor. Cell expends energy to synthesize or import compatible solutes. Concept / Approach: “Osmotolerant” microbes grow over a wide aw range by accumulating compatible solutes (for example, proline, glycine betaine, trehalose) without disrupting cellular proteins. This distinguishes them from “osmophiles,” which prefer very low aw. The key is active regulation of internal solute concentrations to retain water and keep enzymes functional despite external osmotic pressure. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the stress: low aw (hyperosmotic environment). Recall the strategy: compatible solute accumulation to balance osmotic pressure. Map definitions: osmotolerant aptly describes this capacity. Select “osmotolerant.” Verification / Alternative check: Yeasts used in sweet doughs and halotolerant staphylococci on salted foods exemplify osmotolerance, thriving where non-tolerant microbes fail. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Acidophile/Alkalophile: Adapt to pH extremes, not osmotic stress. Aerotolerant anaerobe: Oxygen tolerance phenotype; unrelated to aw. Common Pitfalls: Confusing “osmotolerant” (broad tolerance) with “osmophilic” (preference for very low aw environments such as syrups and honey). Final Answer: osmotolerant.

Question 6

In bacterial population kinetics, “generation time” refers to what, and how is it commonly calculated from growth data?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Generation time is a core metric of microbial growth, allowing comparisons across media, temperatures, and strains. It connects directly to doubling time during exponential growth and underlies calculations of specific growth rate. Given Data / Assumptions: We consider the exponential phase where growth is balanced and rate is constant. Number of generations (n) over an interval (t) can be determined from counts or OD. Population doubling is the operational definition of one generation. Concept / Approach: By definition, generation time (g) is the time needed for the population to double. If a culture undergoes n doublings in time t, then g = t / n. Specific growth rate mu relates as mu = ln(2) / g, and the growth rate (generations per unit time) is 1 / g. These relationships are the foundation for plotting and interpreting growth curves. Step-by-Step Solution: State meaning: one generation equals one doubling. Use data to compute n (for example, from CFU or OD changes). Apply formula: g = t / n during exponential growth. Thus, both the definition and the formula are correct. Verification / Alternative check: When OD increases fourfold, that is two generations (since 2^2 = 4). If this took 40 minutes, g = 40/2 = 20 minutes, matching independent calculations using mu. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Initial adjustment: That describes lag phase, not generation time. Common Pitfalls: Using non-exponential data (late log or early stationary) to compute g; this violates the assumption of constant rate. Final Answer: both (a) and (c).

Question 7

The statement “the total biomass attainable is limited by whichever required nutrient is present at the lowest concentration relative to cellular needs” exemplifies which ecological principle used in microbial growth and media design?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Determining which nutrient caps biomass helps design balanced media and interpret yield coefficients. The quoted principle is foundational in ecology and bioprocessing and explains why one limiting element sets the ceiling for growth. Given Data / Assumptions: Organisms need fixed ratios of C, N, P, S, trace metals, vitamins, etc. Only one essential nutrient is limiting; others are in non-limiting excess. Cells cannot substitute for the limiting element. Concept / Approach: Liebig’s law of the minimum states that growth is constrained by the scarcest essential resource. In fermentations, if nitrogen is limiting, residual carbon accumulates; if carbon is limiting, nitrogen remains unused. Yield on the limiting substrate (Yx/s) predicts maximum biomass possible from the available amount. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the limiting nutrient by material balances or residual analysis. Relate biomass yield to the limiting substrate quantity. Apply the ecological axiom: the scarcest resource controls the outcome. Select Liebig’s law of the minimum. Verification / Alternative check: Chemostat experiments demonstrate that changing the feed concentration of a single nutrient shifts steady-state biomass proportionally, consistent with Liebig’s law. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Shelford's law: Addresses tolerance ranges, not single-resource limitation. Quorum sensing: Density-dependent gene regulation. Heisenberg's principle: Physics; irrelevant to growth limitation. Common Pitfalls: Over-supplementing a non-limiting nutrient expecting more biomass; unless the limiting nutrient is increased, yield does not rise. Final Answer: Liebig's law of the minimum.

Question 8

Why is the exponential (log) phase of a bacterial growth curve of limited duration in batch culture systems?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: In batch culture, bacteria often exhibit lag, exponential, stationary, and death phases. Although exponential phase features maximal and constant specific growth rate, it cannot continue indefinitely. Understanding why it ends is key for scheduling harvests and interpreting kinetics. Given Data / Assumptions: Closed system: no fresh nutrients are added and wastes are not removed. Cells respire and produce metabolites that can alter pH and redox. Rising biomass changes oxygen transfer and light (for phototrophs). Concept / Approach: Three forces curtail exponential growth: (1) nutrient depletion lowers specific growth rate; (2) inhibitory by-products accumulate (organic acids, ethanol, reactive species); and (3) high cell densities reduce resource access (oxygen limitation, self-shading, viscosity changes), collectively driving the culture into stationary phase. Step-by-Step Solution: Track substrate decline over time; limiting nutrients drop below Ks. Monitor pH and by-products; inhibitory thresholds are reached. Observe mass transfer: oxygen and mixing become rate-limiting as biomass climbs. Conclude that all listed factors contribute; choose the comprehensive option. Verification / Alternative check: Feeding fresh medium and removing waste (as in a chemostat) prolongs the log-like steady state, confirming the batch-specific limitations. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Each single factor is true but incomplete. Only the combined explanation captures the full reason exponential growth is transient in batch culture. Common Pitfalls: Assuming a single “limiting nutrient” is always the sole cause; often mass transfer and inhibition contribute significantly. Final Answer: all of these.

Question 9

Postgate’s assay technique is useful for determining whether a cell is viable even when it is in which state?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Viability does not always equal active division. Some cells persist in a non-dividing or “resting” state yet remain alive and potentially resuscitable. Postgate’s assay (historically used with difficult anaerobes such as sulfate-reducing bacteria) helps detect life in such states. Given Data / Assumptions: Target cells may be metabolically active but non-culturable by routine plating. Specialized conditions and indicators are used to reveal metabolic activity. Cell division may be absent during the test period. Concept / Approach: The principle is to provide a conducive, often reduced environment with suitable electron donors/acceptors and sensitive readouts (for example, color changes, sulfide formation) that report metabolism. A positive signal indicates viability despite failure to form colonies, distinguishing truly dead cells from temporarily non-dividing ones. Step-by-Step Solution: Recognize the scenario: cells are alive but not dividing. Use an assay that detects metabolic activity rather than colony formation. Interpret positive metabolic signals as evidence of viability. Select the option that states “incapable of cell division.” Verification / Alternative check: Similar logic underpins viability dyes (e.g., esterase substrates) and resuscitation media that detect life in viable-but-non-culturable (VBNC) states. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Too small to see: Size does not determine assay choice. Obligate aerobe/Thermophile: Growth requirements, not the key issue addressed by Postgate’s viability detection. Common Pitfalls: Equating “no colonies” with “no viability.” Some organisms require specialized conditions or time to resume division. Final Answer: incapable of cell division.

Question 10

In growth-curve terminology, the “lag phase” of a bacterial culture is also referred to as the:

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: When cells are inoculated into fresh medium, they often do not divide immediately. This preparatory interval is called the lag phase and reflects physiological adaptation to new environmental conditions. Given Data / Assumptions: Cells may adjust enzyme levels, repair damage, and synthesize transporters. Duration depends on inoculum history, temperature, and medium composition. Cell number remains roughly constant even as metabolism ramps up. Concept / Approach: Because the core feature is acclimatization, the lag phase is aptly named the “period of initial adjustment.” It is distinct from the exponential (log) phase where division occurs at a constant rate, and from the stationary phase where net growth ceases. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify that lag emphasizes adaptation, not multiplication. Map synonyms: “initial adjustment” matches the defining behavior. Exclude terms that imply growth rate (generation time) or vague transitions. Choose “period of initial adjustment.” Verification / Alternative check: Pre-conditioning inocula in the same medium shortens lag, confirming its adaptive nature. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Transitional period: Too nonspecific; could apply to many phases. Generation time: A doubling interval during log phase, not lag. None: Incorrect because a precise synonym exists. Common Pitfalls: Misinterpreting unchanged OD during lag as cell death; cells may be metabolically active without dividing. Final Answer: period of initial adjustment.

Question 11

During exponential (log) growth, how is the growth rate commonly expressed and related to generation time?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Quantifying how fast a population grows requires clear terminology. In the exponential phase, growth is characterized by constant proportional increase, enabling precise mathematical relationships between growth rate and generation time. Given Data / Assumptions: Growth is balanced and specific growth rate is constant. One generation equals one doubling. Time is measured over an interval where exponential behavior holds. Concept / Approach: If a culture undergoes n doublings per unit time, the growth rate in generations per unit time is simply n. Generation time, g, is the time per doubling, so growth rate = 1 / g. These are two equivalent ways of expressing the same phenomenon. In parallel, the specific growth rate mu relates as mu = ln(2) / g. Step-by-Step Solution: Define generation time g as time per doubling. Express growth rate as doublings per time = 1 / g. Recognize that “generations per unit time” and “reciprocal of g” are equivalent. Select the option combining both statements. Verification / Alternative check: A culture with g = 20 minutes produces 3 generations per hour; conversely, 3 generations per hour implies g = 60/3 = 20 minutes. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Each partial statement is correct but incomplete by itself; “none” is clearly false. Common Pitfalls: Mixing up specific growth rate (per hour) with generations per hour; remember mu = ln(2) * generations per hour. Final Answer: both (a) and (b).

Question 12

A culture that produces two generations per hour has what relationship in generation time compared with a culture producing three generations per hour?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Generation time (g) and generations per hour are inversely related. Comparing two cultures with different doubling frequencies illustrates this reciprocal relationship and reinforces intuition for growth kinetics. Given Data / Assumptions: Culture A: 2 generations per hour. Culture B: 3 generations per hour. g = 1 / (generations per hour) * 60 minutes. Concept / Approach: If generations per hour increase, the time per generation must decrease. Therefore, the culture doubling more frequently has a shorter g. Explicit calculation confirms the qualitative conclusion and avoids mistakes. Step-by-Step Solution: For 2 generations per hour: g = 60 / 2 = 30 minutes. For 3 generations per hour: g = 60 / 3 = 20 minutes. Compare: 30 minutes (two per hour) is greater than 20 minutes (three per hour). Therefore, select “greater than that produces three generations per hour.” Verification / Alternative check: The general rule holds: if culture X has higher generations per hour than culture Y, then g_X < g_Y. Here, 3 > 2, so 20 < 30. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Lesser than: Opposite of the computed values. Equal/None: Refuted by direct calculation. Common Pitfalls: Confusing “faster growth” with a “bigger number of minutes”; faster growth means a smaller generation time. Final Answer: greater than that produces three generations per hour.

Question 13

Which apparatus is specifically designed to grow bacterial cultures continuously at a defined growth rate and steady state by balancing nutrient feed and effluent removal?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Continuous culture enables long-term study of microbes under constant conditions and is widely used to investigate physiology, evolution, and process optimization. The key device maintains a steady state by controlling dilution rate and limiting nutrients. Given Data / Assumptions: Fresh medium is supplied at a constant rate. Culture volume stays constant via matched outflow. One essential nutrient is limiting and sets the specific growth rate. Concept / Approach: A chemostat achieves steady state when growth rate equals dilution rate. At equilibrium, biomass, residual substrate, and product concentrations remain constant, modeling balanced growth over extended periods. This contrasts with batch culture, which progresses through distinct phases and is not steady. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the need: continuous, steady-state cultivation. Recall device function: feed plus effluent maintain constant volume and conditions. Match names to functions: chemostat fits; others do not. Select “Chemostat.” Verification / Alternative check: At steady state, measurements are reproducible across residence times, enabling precise parameter estimation (e.g., Ks, Yx/s). Why Other Options Are Wrong: Coulter Counter: Counts particles electrically; not a culture device. Hemostat: Surgical clamp; unrelated to microbiology cultivation. Petroff-Hausser chamber: Microscopic counting slide; not continuous culture. Common Pitfalls: Confusing “turbidostat” (maintains constant turbidity via feedback) with “chemostat” (sets rate via limiting nutrient and dilution); both are continuous but operate differently. Final Answer: Chemostat.

Question 14

Bacterial cell biology — The straightforward mechanism of binary fission explains how bacteria increase their numbers over time; what key cellular process does binary fission describe?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Binary fission is the fundamental process by which most bacteria increase population size. Unlike mitosis in eukaryotes, binary fission is a streamlined, prokaryote-specific mechanism that duplicates the chromosome and segregates it into two daughter cells. This question tests whether you can link the term “binary fission” to the correct biological function in bacteria. Given Data / Assumptions: Bacteria are prokaryotes lacking a membrane-bound nucleus. Binary fission involves DNA replication, segregation, and cytokinesis. The focus is on what the process accomplishes for the population as a whole. Concept / Approach: During binary fission, a single bacterium duplicates its circular chromosome at the origin of replication. The two DNA molecules are actively partitioned toward opposite ends of the cell as new membrane and peptidoglycan are inserted at the division septum. When constriction completes, two genetically identical (barring mutations) daughter cells are produced. Therefore, binary fission is directly synonymous with how bacteria reproduce to increase cell numbers. Growth on nutrient agar (colony expansion), evolution (genetic change over generations), and motility (movement) are related but distinct phenomena and not the definition of binary fission. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify binary fission as the mechanism of cellular division in bacteria.Recall steps: DNA replication → chromosome segregation → septum formation → cytokinesis.Infer its population-level outcome: production of two daughter cells = reproduction. Verification / Alternative check: Population growth curves in batch culture show exponential increases that reflect repeated cycles of binary fission; generation time (doubling time) measures the interval between reproduction events. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Grow in nutrient agar: describes a culture condition, not the division mechanism. Evolve: long-term genetic change via mutation and selection, not a single-cell division event. Move: refers to motility (flagella, pili-based twitching), unrelated to division. Common Pitfalls: Confusing “growth” as biomass increase with “reproduction” as cell number increase; in microbiology, growth usually implies reproduction via binary fission. Final Answer: reproduce

Question 15

Food microbiology — Antimicrobial constituents naturally present in a food (for example, lysozyme in egg white or lactoferrin in milk) are classified as which type of factor influencing microbial growth?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Food spoilage and safety depend on multiple hurdles. The classic framework divides determinants of microbial growth into intrinsic factors (properties of the food itself), extrinsic factors (environmental storage conditions), and implicit factors (microbial interactions). Recognizing where antimicrobial constituents fit helps predict which foods have natural protection against microbes. Given Data / Assumptions: Examples of antimicrobial constituents include lysozyme, lactoferrin, and essential oils inherent to the food matrix. Intrinsic = inherent to food; extrinsic = outside the food (temperature, atmosphere, humidity). We must classify antimicrobial constituents correctly. Concept / Approach: Intrinsic factors are built into the food: pH, water activity, redox potential, natural antimicrobial compounds, and nutrient composition. Extrinsic factors are external conditions like refrigeration temperature, packaging gas composition, and relative humidity. Because antimicrobial constituents are inherent components of the food, they are intrinsic. They are not extrinsic, and the category is not “both,” since classification depends on origin, not effect. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the property in question: antimicrobial compounds inherent to the food.Map to the factor class inherent to the food → intrinsic factor.Exclude extrinsic factors because they are imposed conditions, not inherent constituents. Verification / Alternative check: Food microbiology texts list natural antimicrobial systems (e.g., lactoperoxidase in raw milk) under intrinsic factors. Storage temperature or modified-atmosphere packaging are listed separately as extrinsic factors. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Extrinsic factor: involves outside conditions, not internal constituents. Both (a) and (b): incorrect because the origin is exclusively intrinsic. None of these: incorrect because “intrinsic factor” precisely matches. Common Pitfalls: Equating “effective at storage” with “extrinsic.” Effectiveness does not change their classification as intrinsic if they are native to the food. Final Answer: intrinsic factor

Question 16

Microbial bioenergetics — Organisms that use organic compounds specifically as their electron donors are called:

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Microbes can be categorized by their energy source, electron source, and carbon source. This nomenclature (photo/chemo, litho/organo, auto/hetero) is essential for understanding ecological niches and designing culture media. The question focuses on the electron donor classification when the donor is organic carbon. Given Data / Assumptions: “Electron donor” is the substance oxidized in catabolism. Organic compounds include carbohydrates, lipids, and many reduced organics. We must choose the correct “-troph” term for electron donor origin. Concept / Approach: Organotrophs obtain electrons from organic compounds; lithotrophs obtain electrons from reduced inorganic substances (e.g., H2, NH3, NO2−, Fe2+, H2S). Phototrophs use light as their energy source (not an electron donor designation), while chemotrophs use chemicals for energy (either organic or inorganic). Therefore, the most precise term for organisms using organic electron donors is “organotrophs.” Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the classification axis: electron donor source.Map organic electron donors to the “organo-” designation.Select “organotrophs” as the accurate term and reject energy-source-only labels. Verification / Alternative check: Typical heterotrophic bacteria are chemoorganoheterotrophs: they use chemicals for energy (chemo-), organic compounds as electron donors (organo-), and organic carbon as the carbon source (hetero-). Why Other Options Are Wrong: Lithotrophs: use inorganic electron donors. Phototrophs: describes energy source (light), not electron donor source. Chemotrophs: describes energy source (chemicals), not specifically organo versus litho. Common Pitfalls: Confusing the three axes (energy, electrons, carbon). Remember: photo/chemo (energy), organo/litho (electrons), hetero/auto (carbon). Final Answer: organotrophs

Growth and Nutrition of Bacteria Questions