Question 1

Ozone disinfection in water treatment: Which is the main drawback that limits its use as the sole final disinfectant in distribution systems?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Ozone is a powerful oxidant and disinfectant used for primary disinfection and oxidation of taste-and-odour compounds, iron/manganese, and organic precursors. However, its application must consider distribution-system protection against re-contamination. Given Data / Assumptions: Potable water treatment with post-ozonation. Conventional distribution network where intrusion/regrowth risk exists. Concept / Approach: Unlike free chlorine or chloramine, ozone decomposes rapidly and provides no persistent residual in the distribution system. Therefore, although it achieves excellent primary disinfection, it cannot by itself protect against downstream contamination or biofilm regrowth; a secondary disinfectant residual (e.g., chlorine/chloramine) is typically required. Step-by-Step Solution: Apply ozone for primary disinfection and oxidation in the plant.Recognize rapid decay of ozone residual after contactor.Provide a secondary residual (post-chlorination) before distribution. Verification / Alternative check: Operational experience and guidelines emphasize maintaining a measurable residual in the network; ozone cannot provide this due to its short half-life in finished water. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Removal of colour/odour is beneficial, not a drawback. “Adds taste” is not typical; ozone generally improves taste/odour. Efficiency: ozone is generally more potent than chlorine for primary inactivation; the limitation is residual, not efficacy. Common Pitfalls: Relying solely on ozonation without secondary residual protection. Ignoring bromate formation control when ozonating bromide-bearing waters. Final Answer: Ozone leaves no lasting residual; it vanishes before water reaches consumers.

Question 2

Centrifugal pumps in water supply: Identify the main drawback and related limitations in typical operation.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Centrifugal pumps are widely used for water supply due to simplicity and smooth flow, but designers must recognize operational constraints that affect reliability and energy performance. Given Data / Assumptions: Standard single-stage centrifugal pump, flooded suction not guaranteed. Cold water near atmospheric conditions. Conventional system curve with varying head. Concept / Approach: Because a centrifugal pump cannot self-prime (unless specifically designed), the casing must be filled before startup. Its discharge depends on the intersection of the pump curve and system curve; as head changes, flow changes. For high heads, multi-stage or alternative types are preferred since efficiency of a single-stage unit declines. Suction lift is bounded by atmospheric pressure and NPSH requirements, typically limiting practical suction to ≈6–7 m at sea level. Step-by-Step Solution: Prime or provide foot valve/self-priming features to prevent air binding.Select duty point where efficiency is high (near BEP) to reduce energy use.Keep suction lift minimal; ensure adequate NPSH available to prevent cavitation. Verification / Alternative check: Manufacturer curves and standards confirm performance limitations and priming requirements; field practice often employs flooded suction or foot/check valves. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Each item reflects a genuine limitation; focusing on only one understates real-world considerations. Common Pitfalls: Running unprimed pumps causing seal and impeller damage. Oversizing leading to operation far from BEP and higher energy costs. Final Answer: All the above.

Question 3

Empirical runoff formula identification: The relation where Q is yearly runoff (cm), P is yearly rainfall (cm), H is the relief (difference in R.L. of highest and lowest points), and A is catchment area (m^2) is referred to as which named formula?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Numerous empirical relations estimate annual runoff where gauged records are scarce. These formulas combine climatic input (P), basin geometry (A), and relief/topography (H) to approximate long-term runoff Q for planning-level assessments. Given Data / Assumptions: Q in centimetres depth over the basin or converted as required. P in centimetres per year. H characterizes terrain relief (highest minus lowest R.L.). A is the plan area of the catchment. Concept / Approach: Among classical Indian runoff estimators, the form explicitly involving rainfall P, catchment area A, and relief H has been associated with Khosla’s approach to annual runoff estimation, which recognizes the hydrologic influence of topographic relief in addition to rainfall amount and basin size. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify variables in the stem: P, H, and A appear together with annual runoff Q.Match to the named methods: Khosla’s method includes relief effects; others typically do not combine A and H explicitly in this manner for annual runoff.Select Khosla’s formula accordingly. Verification / Alternative check: Standard competitive-exam references list Khosla’s formula as the relation incorporating rainfall, area, and relief for annual runoff estimation, distinguishing it from English/Justin/Vermeule variants. Why Other Options Are Wrong: English / Justin / Vermule: These forms either omit explicit relief or are applied differently. Inglis: Primarily regional for Maharashtra/Western India with other parameterizations. Common Pitfalls: Confusing regional flood-peak formulas (e.g., Dickens, Ryves) with annual runoff relations. Ignoring units when converting Q from depth to volume by area scaling. Final Answer: Khosla's formula.

Question 4

Pressure conduit laid underground: which action is typically negligible? A pressure conduit (pressurized pipeline) installed below ground may be subjected to several actions. Which of the following it may generally not be subjected to in significant…

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Underground pressure conduits are designed for multiple actions, including internal hydraulic pressure, soil overburden, traffic loads, and forces from fittings. This question checks awareness of which action is generally negligible for buried lines: longitudinal temperature stress. Given Data / Assumptions: Pipeline is buried below ground level. Normal civil engineering conditions (no extreme temperature cycling such as steam lines). Fittings (bends/tees) may create thrust that must be resisted. Concept / Approach: Temperature-induced axial strain in buried water pipelines is typically restrained by surrounding soil and, more importantly, daily/seasonal soil temperature variations at burial depth are small. In contrast, internal pressure, external loads, and unbalanced hydraulic thrusts are real and must be designed for. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify credible actions: internal pressure (hoop and longitudinal stress) is always present.External load from cover soil and surface live loads acts on the pipe ring.Unbalanced pressure at bends generates longitudinal thrust requiring thrust blocks/anchors.Buried temperature swings are minor; axial temperature stress is commonly negligible or managed by joints. Verification / Alternative check: Design manuals for buried water mains emphasize pressure class, ring stiffness, and thrust restraint; temperature considerations focus on expansion joints primarily for above-ground runs. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Internal pressure (a) is fundamental for pressure-class selection. External loads (b) drive ring buckling and wall stress checks. Unbalanced pressure at bends (d) requires thrust blocks/anchorage. “None of these” (e) is incorrect since (c) is the best answer. Common Pitfalls: Confusing above-ground pipelines (where thermal movement can be large) with buried lines; ignoring thrust at fittings; assuming soil load is negligible. Final Answer: Longitudinal temperature stress

Question 5

Public water-supply disinfection: which method is considered the best routine process for distribution systems?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Municipal water-treatment trains include a final disinfection step to inactivate pathogens and to maintain a residual within the distribution network. The question asks for the best routine process for public water supplies. Given Data / Assumptions: Centralized, continuous treatment for a public distribution system. Need for a persistent disinfectant residual in the pipe network. Concept / Approach: Chlorination (free chlorine or chloramine) is widely used because it provides both primary disinfection and a lasting residual to protect against regrowth and intrusion. Boiling is effective at point-of-use but impractical for systems. Lime adjusts pH/softening but is not a disinfectant. Ozone and UV are excellent primary disinfectants but do not provide a lasting residual; often they are paired with a small chlorine dose downstream. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the requirement for a distribution system: a residual disinfectant is needed.Compare options: only chlorine-based methods provide persistent residual at practical cost and scale.Select chlorination as the best routine process. Verification / Alternative check: Standards and design manuals specify chlorine residual maintenance (free or combined) throughout the network for regulatory compliance. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Boiling (a) is point-of-use emergency treatment, not system-wide. Lime (c) is for softening/pH, not disinfection. Ozonation (d) and UV (e) lack distribution residual and are usually coupled with chlorine/chloramine downstream. Common Pitfalls: Assuming strongest primary disinfectant equals best system method; network protection needs residual. Final Answer: Chlorination

Question 6

Bacterial survival versus pH for drinking water microbiology Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria die off rapidly in water when pH is greater than approximately:

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: E. coli is an indicator organism for fecal contamination. Its survival is influenced by environmental conditions such as temperature, disinfectant residual, and pH. Extreme pH levels are hostile to bacterial viability. Given Data / Assumptions: Typical drinking water pH ranges from about 6.5 to 8.5. Question asks for a threshold above which E. coli die off quickly. Concept / Approach: Most enteric bacteria prefer near-neutral pH. At elevated pH (strongly alkaline), cell membranes and enzymatic processes are disrupted, causing rapid inactivation. Empirical guidance in waterworks practice recognizes pH above roughly 9.5 as strongly bactericidal (though relying solely on pH control is not a standard disinfection method). Step-by-Step Solution: Identify physiologically stressful pH far from neutrality.Select the highest option (9.5) that reflects strong alkalinity leading to E. coli die off. Verification / Alternative check: Operational experience shows microbial counts drop rapidly in highly alkaline water; however, utilities still apply disinfectants for reliable pathogen control. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 5.5 and 6.5 remain within tolerable ranges for many bacteria. 7.5 is close to neutral and supportive of survival. 8.5 is only mildly alkaline; not reliably lethal without disinfectant. Common Pitfalls: Assuming pH alone is adequate for disinfection. Chlorination or other disinfectants are required for public health protection. Final Answer: 9.5

Question 7

Methemoglobinemia (blue baby disease) in drinking water Which contaminant is the primary cause of infant methemoglobinemia associated with potable water?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Blue baby syndrome (methemoglobinemia) is a potentially life-threatening condition in infants caused by impaired oxygen transport. Drinking water quality standards restrict certain ions to prevent this outcome. Given Data / Assumptions: Exposure pathway is ingestion of contaminated water or formula prepared with that water. Infants are especially susceptible due to gastrointestinal conditions that promote reduction reactions. Concept / Approach: Nitrate (NO3−) in water can be reduced to nitrite (NO2−) in the infant gut. Nitrite oxidizes Fe²⁺ in hemoglobin to Fe³⁺, forming methemoglobin which cannot bind oxygen. The initiating contaminant of concern in source water is nitrate; hence regulatory limits (e.g., 10 mg/L as N). Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the pollutant tied to infant methemoglobinemia in drinking water guidelines: nitrate.Recognize the biological conversion to nitrite and its effect on hemoglobin.Select “Nitrates” as the correct option. Verification / Alternative check: Epidemiological cases link private wells with elevated nitrates to infant illness; standards are set accordingly. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Chlorides (a) are mainly aesthetic/corrosion related. Nitrites (b) are toxic, but the regulated source contaminant leading to nitrite in infants is nitrate. Sulfides (d) cause odor; not linked to methemoglobinemia. Iron (e) is an aesthetic parameter. Common Pitfalls: Confusing nitrate with nitrite in the water standard context; the driver contaminant to control in supply is nitrate. Final Answer: Nitrates

Question 8

Hydrogeology terminology An earth formation that is porous and can absorb water but does not yield an appreciable supply to wells is termed:

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Correct classification of subsurface formations is essential for groundwater exploration and well design. Terms differentiate formations by porosity and permeability. Given Data / Assumptions: Formation is porous (stores water). Formation does not yield appreciable water to wells (very low permeability). Concept / Approach: An aquifer is both porous and sufficiently permeable to yield water. An aquiclude is porous but effectively impermeable, thus it stores water but does not transmit it in useful quantities. An aquifuge is neither porous nor permeable. An aquitard is semipermeable and yields water slowly. Step-by-Step Solution: Match the description “porous but not yielding” to standard definitions.Select “Aquiclude”. Verification / Alternative check: Clay formations often function as aquicludes; coarse sand or gravel is typical of aquifers. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Aquifer (a) yields appreciable water. Aquifuge (c) is nonporous and impermeable. Aquitard (d) does yield some water, albeit slowly. Common Pitfalls: Confusing aquiclude with aquifuge; porosity is the key differentiator. Final Answer: Aquiclude

Question 9

Open wells and “Mota layer” (foundation stratum) Pick the incorrect statement regarding the Mota layer and well terminology used in field practice.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: In many practical hydrogeology and well-construction contexts, “Mota layer” refers to a hard, relatively impervious stratum encountered below the water table. Understanding its role helps in correct siting and sinking of open wells. Given Data / Assumptions: Mota layer is hard/impervious, offering bearing support. Open (dug) wells are constructed to intercept water-bearing strata, not to seat screens in impervious layers. Concept / Approach: Open wells are typically sunk through overburden until they rest on or are seated within a competent stratum for stability. Yield is obtained from surrounding permeable horizons (aquifers), not from the impervious “Mota” layer. Therefore, drilling into an impervious layer to “increase yield” is illogical. Step-by-Step Solution: Evaluate (a) and (e): they emphasize structural support—true for seating curbs.Evaluate (c): definitional statement is true.Evaluate (b): suggests boring into an impervious support layer to increase yield—this contradicts hydrogeologic function.Conclude (b) is incorrect. Verification / Alternative check: Site logs show yields are associated with permeable strata (sands, gravels, fractured rock); impervious layers are used for support or act as confining beds. Why Other Options Are Wrong: (a) and (e) are consistent with well-sinking practice (support/bearing). (c) is tautologically correct. (d) “None of these” is false because (b) is indeed incorrect. Common Pitfalls: Assuming that harder strata always give more water; in fact, permeability governs yield. Final Answer: For deep wells, a borehole is generally drilled into the Mota layer to increase yield.

Question 10

Forces in an above-ground pressure conduit on trestles A pressure conduit carried on trestles (i.e., above ground) predominantly develops which structural action due to self-weight and spans?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: When a pipeline is supported above ground on trestles or piers, it behaves structurally like a beam between supports while also containing internal fluid pressure. Understanding the dominant structural effect is important for support spacing and wall checks. Given Data / Assumptions: Conduit spans between trestles. Self-weight of pipe and water acts vertically; internal pressure acts circumferentially and longitudinally. Concept / Approach: Between supports, gravity loads cause bending moments and shear forces. The pipe wall must resist hoop and longitudinal stresses from internal pressure, but the span action from supports introduces flexure. Thus, the principal structural response due to being carried on trestles is bending. Step-by-Step Solution: Model the pipe as a beam on multiple supports subjected to distributed weight.Compute bending moments and shears for support design.Check combined stress state (bending + pressure) in the pipe wall. Verification / Alternative check: Design guides require section modulus checks and support spans based on allowable bending stress and deflection limits. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Tension (a) or compression (b) alone do not represent the beam action. Temperature stress (c) may exist but is not the defining action from trestle support. Torsion (e) is not primary unless geometry induces twists. Common Pitfalls: Ignoring the combination of internal pressure and bending, leading to underestimation of maximum wall stress. Final Answer: Flexural (bending) stress

Question 11

Classification of water sources Which of the following is correctly classified as a surface water source for a water-supply project?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Water sources are broadly categorized into surface water and groundwater. Proper classification affects treatment design and yield analysis. Given Data / Assumptions: Surface water is water present on the land surface (rivers, lakes, reservoirs) principally from precipitation and runoff. Groundwater is water stored in aquifers and accessed through wells/springs/galleries. Concept / Approach: Rainfall is the driver of surface runoff that fills rivers and lakes; thus, the resource captured in reservoirs is surface water. Wells and springs access subsurface flows and are groundwater sources. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify which option clearly represents surface water: rain-derived runoff in rivers/lakes/reservoirs.Recognize that wells, artesian wells, springs, infiltration galleries are groundwater abstractions. Verification / Alternative check: Design standards treat surface water as more variable in turbidity and pathogen load, requiring full conventional treatment. Why Other Options Are Wrong: (a) and (c) wells draw groundwater. (b) springs discharge groundwater at the surface but are classified as groundwater source types. (e) infiltration galleries induce riverbank filtration but are groundwater works. Common Pitfalls: Confusing the origin point (surface appearance) with classification; springs emerge at the surface but are groundwater-fed. Final Answer: Rain (runoff collected in rivers/lakes/reservoirs)

Question 12

Statements about pressure conduits and hydraulic grade line (HGL) Pick the correct statement regarding pressure conduits used in water supply.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Pressure conduits convey water under pressure supplied by pumps or upstream head. Their hydraulics differ from gravity sewers that operate partly full with a free surface. Given Data / Assumptions: Closed, pressurized piping system. Steady-state conditions unless otherwise stated. Concept / Approach: In pressure flow, the pipe is normally flowing full, with piezometric head above or below the crown. The hydraulic gradient line (HGL) represents piezometric head and generally does not coincide with the invert; it can be above the pipe crown. Pressure pipes can be laid on any grade as pressure (not slope) drives flow. Step-by-Step Solution: Recognize that pressure conduits are designed for full-flow under pressure.Reject statements implying dependence on downhill slope or HGL coinciding with invert. Verification / Alternative check: Distribution mains in cities run full regardless of local terrain undulations, provided required pressure is maintained. Why Other Options Are Wrong: (b) Pressure pipes are not limited to down grades; pumps/head control flow. (c) HGL ≠ invert in pressurized systems. (e) Contradicts basic pressure-flow design. (d) is false because (a) is correct. Common Pitfalls: Confusing gravity sewers (partly full, free surface) with pressure mains (full, pressurized). Final Answer: Pressure conduits are permitted to run full under pressure.

Question 13

Centrifugal pumps (radial flow) – casing types and efficiency:\r Which statements correctly describe volute (involute) and turbine/diffuser type casings used with radial flow centrifugal pumps, and their typical efficiency trend?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Centrifugal pumps convert mechanical shaft power into hydraulic energy by imparting velocity to water in the impeller and then converting that velocity head to pressure head in the casing. This question checks understanding of the two common casing philosophies for radial flow pumps and their impact on efficiency and operation. Given Data / Assumptions: Pump type: radial flow centrifugal pump. Casing alternatives: volute (involute spiral) and turbine or diffuser type with guide vanes. Comparison concerns construction and typical efficiency. Concept / Approach: The volute casing is a spiral passage of increasing area that slows the high velocity discharge from the impeller and partially converts kinetic energy into pressure. The diffuser or turbine casing uses a ring of stationary guide vanes around the impeller to decelerate flow more uniformly before collecting it, which tends to give better energy recovery and a higher hydraulic efficiency for a given duty, especially near design flow. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify features: volute equals expanding spiral passage; diffuser equals stationary guide vanes plus collection.Energy recovery: both reduce velocity to raise static pressure; diffuser does so more uniformly.Efficiency trend: diffuser casings typically achieve higher efficiency under design conditions than simple volutes.Therefore all listed statements are consistent with standard pump theory and practice. Verification / Alternative check: Manufacturer curves frequently show diffuser pumps with slightly higher peak efficiencies. Volute pumps remain popular due to simplicity, robustness, and wider tolerance to off-design operation, but do not negate the general efficiency edge of diffuser designs. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Any single statement alone is incomplete. The inclusive choice encompasses construction, flow guidance, and efficiency. Common Pitfalls: Confusing axial flow casings with radial flow casings. Assuming volutes are always superior due to simplicity; efficiency trends favor diffusers at design conditions. Final Answer: All of the above

Question 14

Groundwater hydrology – perennial sources:\r From which type of natural spring can a continuous flow of water most reliably be expected throughout the year?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Springs are natural outlets where groundwater emerges at the land surface. For water supply planning, engineers classify springs by their hydrogeologic setting to gauge reliability and seasonality. The question asks which spring type is most likely to provide continuous, year round discharge. Given Data / Assumptions: Gravity springs drain unconfined aquifers intersecting slopes. Surface springs are shallow and strongly influenced by recent rainfall. Artesian springs are fed by confined aquifers under pressure. Objective: identify the most reliable continuous source. Concept / Approach: Confined aquifers are overlain by low permeability layers and are recharged at distant outcrops. Pressure heads in such aquifers can drive water to the surface where the confining layer is breached, forming artesian springs with relatively stable heads and discharges. Gravity and surface springs often respond quickly to seasonal precipitation patterns and may decline or cease during dry periods. Step-by-Step Reasoning: Consider controls: storage and confinement stabilize discharge.Artesian condition: pressure head sustains flow independent of short term rainfall fluctuations.Gravity and surface springs: subject to seasonal variability and recession during droughts.Therefore, artesian springs most reliably yield continuous flow. Verification / Alternative check: Hydrographs of artesian springs typically show damped seasonal variability relative to unconfined gravity springs, reflecting the buffering effect of confined storage and longer regional flow paths. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Gravity springs can be perennial in wet climates but are less reliable across seasons and droughts than artesian sources. Surface springs are shallow and intermittent in many basins. “None of these” contradicts hydrogeologic evidence. Common Pitfalls: Equating spring reliability solely with catchment size and forgetting aquifer confinement and pressure head. Assuming all springs are interchangeable for supply design. Final Answer: Artesian springs

Question 15

Urban water demand components:\r A city water supply design must account for which of the following demand categories and system losses?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Comprehensive demand assessment is the foundation of urban water supply planning. Engineers must include end user categories and also system losses when sizing sources, treatment, storage, and distribution networks. This question checks awareness of all essential components. Given Data / Assumptions: End users: residential, industrial, commercial, institutional, and public services. Special categories: fire flow provisions and peak hour factors. Losses: physical leakage, meter under registration, and unauthorized consumption. Concept / Approach: Design demand equals the sum of category demands times applicable peaking factors plus allowances for losses and non revenue water. Ignoring any major category can cause undersized facilities or inadequate pressures under peak conditions. Step-by-Step Reasoning: List all demand categories that routinely appear in design manuals.Confirm that each item in options a through d is part of standard practice.Conclude the inclusive choice captures the complete set. Verification / Alternative check: Utility master plans and AWWA style guidance require explicit fire flow allowances, non revenue water targets, and category forecasts based on land use or unit rates. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Any single category alone is insufficient. Planning needs the sum over all uses and losses. Common Pitfalls: Designing only for average day residential demand without peak and fire flow. Ignoring leakage and apparent losses, leading to supply deficits. Final Answer: All of the above

Question 16

Population forecasting for water supply:\r For a rapidly growing city, which projection technique is generally preferred to estimate future population for design horizons?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Urban water systems are designed for multi decade horizons. Selecting an appropriate population forecast method is crucial for credible demand projections. Different empirical methods suit different growth patterns and historical trends. Given Data / Assumptions: City growth is described as rapidly increasing. Historical data presumably show compounding growth rather than linear increments. Objective: choose a method matching exponential growth tendencies. Concept / Approach: The geometrical method assumes a constant percentage growth rate, leading to exponential population increase over time. It is more suitable than arithmetic methods when recent decades exhibit strong compounding growth. Incremental increase blends linear growth with changing increments and tends to be moderate, while graphical comparison benchmarks against similar cities but does not ensure conservative sizing for fast growth. Step-by-Step Solution: Define methods: arithmetic equals constant absolute increase; geometric equals constant percentage increase.Match method to trend: rapid growth indicates percentage compounding dominates.Select geometrical method as the preferred approach for planning. Verification / Alternative check: Where strong policy or land availability constraints exist, planners may temper geometric projections with scenario analysis, but the baseline choice for rapid growth remains the geometric method. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Arithmetical mean underestimates compounding growth. Incremental increase provides intermediate results and may still understate aggressive growth. Graphical comparison is useful for context but not a primary projection for fast growth without corroborating data. Common Pitfalls: Over projecting by using a short term high percentage without economic validation. Under projecting by defaulting to arithmetic growth in a boom corridor. Final Answer: Geometrical method

Question 17

Sedimentation tanks – effective flow through period:\r Compared with the theoretical detention period, the effective flow through period of a sedimentation tank under real flow conditions is generally

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Clarifiers and settling basins are rarely ideal plug flow reactors. Short circuiting, dead zones, and mixing reduce the effective time available for particle settling compared with the theoretical detention period computed from volume and flow alone. Understanding the practical flow through period is essential for realistic performance expectations. Given Data / Assumptions: Theoretical detention period t_d = basin volume / flow rate. Displacement efficiency E_d = flow through period / detention period, where 0 < E_d < 1 for real tanks. Hydraulic inefficiencies exist due to inlet jets, outlet draw, and geometry. Concept / Approach: Because E_d is less than 1, the effective flow through period is t_f = E_d * t_d, which is less than t_d. Designers mitigate this with inlet baffling, flocculation ahead of sedimentation, appropriate aspect ratios, and properly designed effluent launders to improve residence time distribution. Step-by-Step Reasoning: Start with t_d from volume and flow.Account for non ideal mixing: t_f = E_d * t_d.Since E_d is less than 1, conclude t_f is less than t_d. Verification / Alternative check: Tracer tests routinely show mean residence times less than nominal detention, confirming the reduction and guiding retrofit measures like baffle walls and density current control. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Equal or more than detention is inconsistent with typical non idealities. Dividing by displacement efficiency would increase time, contrary to observed behavior where E_d < 1. Common Pitfalls: Assuming textbook detention ensures removal efficiencies without examining hydraulics. Ignoring seasonal temperature stratification that worsens short circuiting. Final Answer: Less than the detention period

Question 18

Slow sand filter operations – cleaning cycle:\r What is the usual period between successive cleanings (scrapings) of a slow sand filter under normal raw water quality and loading?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Slow sand filtration relies on a biologically active schmutzdecke layer for turbidity and pathogen removal. Over time, accumulated deposits increase headloss, requiring periodic surface scraping to restore throughput. The interval between cleanings is a key operational parameter. Given Data / Assumptions: Conventional slow sand filter with typical rates of 0.1 to 0.3 m/h. Normal raw water turbidity and temperature conditions. Headloss limit triggers cleaning. Concept / Approach: Under usual conditions, slow sand filters run several weeks before headloss reaches the allowable maximum. Operator practice commonly reports scraping intervals from about one to three months, depending on loading rate, pretreatment quality, and season. Extremely short cycles signal pretreatment issues or overloading. Step-by-Step Reasoning: Consider biological maturation and deposition rates.Observe that headloss builds gradually at slow hydraulic loading.Select the widely cited range of one to three months as the most representative interval. Verification / Alternative check: Operational manuals document scraping intervals in the month scale under steady conditions; shorter periods are associated with unusually high raw turbidity or cold temperatures that alter schmutzdecke behavior. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 5 to 10 days and two to three weeks are too short for normal conditions. Three to six months or one year are too long and risk excessive headloss or breakthrough. Common Pitfalls: Confusing slow sand filters with rapid gravity filters, which have much shorter backwash cycles measured in days or hours. Not resetting the filter properly after scraping, leading to suboptimal initial filtrate quality. Final Answer: One month to three months

Question 19

Measurement of turbidity – instrument ranges:\r To measure turbidity in the range up to about 1000 parts per million by the traditional candle standard, which instrument is used?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Turbidity can be reported using different principles and scales. Historically, the Jackson candle turbidimeter measured turbidity in Jackson Turbidity Units, broadly corresponding to higher turbidity waters. Modern nephelometric turbidimeters measure low turbidity in NTU using scattered light at 90 degrees. Given Data / Assumptions: Target range extends up to roughly 1000 ppm or high JTU values. Question references traditional instruments by name. Concept / Approach: The Jackson turbidimeter determines the depth at which a candle flame becomes obscured through the water column, suitable for relatively turbid samples. Nephelometers are preferred for low turbidity, typically 0 to 40 NTU or similar ranges, where sensitivity to small scatter is required. Step-by-Step Reasoning: Match the upper measurement range with instrument capability.Jackson turbidimeter covers higher turbidities up to about 1000 JTU.Therefore select Jackson turbidimeter for the stated range. Verification / Alternative check: Standard methods note the Jackson candle method is not suitable for very low turbidity where nephelometric techniques dominate, reinforcing the instrument selection for high ranges. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Nephelometric turbidimeters excel at low turbidity ranges and precise NTU readings. Baylis and Hallige are not the standard names associated with the high range candle method. Common Pitfalls: Assuming all turbidimeters measure the same range. Instrument selection must match expected turbidity. Confusing historic JTU scales with modern NTU units. Final Answer: Jackson turbidimeter

Question 20

Water distribution valves – isolation strategy:\r Where should sluice (gate) valves be provided in a municipal distribution network to enable sectional isolation and maintenance?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Distribution systems must allow operators to isolate sections for repairs or emergencies while keeping most customers in service. Strategic placement of sluice valves (gate valves) provides this flexibility and limits the number of users affected during outages. Given Data / Assumptions: Network consists of trunk mains, sub mains, and distribution laterals. Objective is sectional isolation and operational control. Concept / Approach: Valves are placed to bracket sections of main, protect critical junctions, and isolate branches. Spacing depends on street grid, customer density, and criticality. A looped grid requires valves around blocks so that any pipe segment can be isolated with a minimum number of closures. Step-by-Step Reasoning: Place valves at intervals along straight runs to limit shutoff extents.Install valves at junctions to control flow paths and enable partial shutdown.Provide valves at branching points so branches can be isolated from mains.Comprehensively, all listed locations are appropriate. Verification / Alternative check: Standard design guidance recommends spacing to ensure that no more than a defined number of service connections are out during a single main isolation, confirming the need for valves in all listed positions. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Limiting valves to only one location would compromise isolation flexibility and enlarge outage areas. Common Pitfalls: Skipping valves to save capital cost, which increases outage size and repair time impact. Forgetting to consider hydrant and PRV zones when planning closures. Final Answer: All of the above

Water Supply Engineering Questions