Q: Gravity conduits in water conveyance: In practice, gravity conduits that carry water under free-surface or mild pressure conditions commonly take which forms?

Introduction / Context: Long-distance water transfer schemes frequently rely on gravity conveyance to minimize energy cost. Depending on terrain and geotechnical constraints, engineers use open channels (canals), elevated or supported conduits (flumes and aqueducts), and bored passages (tunnels) to maintain hydraulic grade and deliver required flows. Given Data / Assumptions: System is designed for predominantly gravity flow. Route crosses varied terrain including valleys and ridges. Hydraulic grade line must remain above the conduit invert. Concept / Approach: Choice of conduit type balances hydraulic efficiency, structural feasibility, right-of-way, and capital cost. Canals are economical on gentle terrain; flumes and aqueducts carry water across depressions; tunnels maintain grade through hills. All are standard parts of gravity schemes, often combined along a single alignment. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify terrain constraints along the alignment.Select the appropriate structure: canal, flume/aqueduct, or tunnel.Recognize that comprehensive schemes use multiple forms. Verification / Alternative check: Famous projects (e.g., aqueduct systems supplying cities) showcase combined use of canals, tunnels, and elevated aqueducts to keep the hydraulic grade consistently descending. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Each single structure alone is not universally applicable; the correct holistic answer is that all listed forms are used as gravity conduits where appropriate. Common Pitfalls: Assuming pressure pipelines are mandatory; gravity works efficiently if topography permits. Ignoring headlosses from transitions; smooth geometry and appurtenances are key. Final Answer: all the above

Q: Total dynamic head for pumping: The head against which a pump–motor set must work to lift water includes which components under typical design conditions?

Introduction / Context: Proper pump selection requires calculating the Total Dynamic Head (TDH) against which the pump must operate. TDH aggregates static elevation differences and head losses so that the pump–motor combination delivers the required discharge efficiently and reliably. Given Data / Assumptions: Pumping from a well or sump to a delivery point at higher elevation. Water level lowers during pumping (drawdown). Water flows through a discharge pipeline with finite length, diameter, and fittings. Concept / Approach: TDH typically consists of static head (difference in elevation from pumping water level to discharge point), plus friction losses along pipes and appurtenances, plus minor velocity head at discharge if relevant. Including drawdown ensures the pump can handle worst-case lowered water levels during operation. Step-by-Step Solution: Static lift: elevation difference including maximum drawdown.Friction losses: compute using headloss equations and sum fittings losses.Velocity head: v^2 / (2g) at the discharge section if specified by design.Sum components: TDH = static + friction + velocity head. Verification / Alternative check: Pump curves are selected by TDH at design flow. Field commissioning confirms operating point close to curve predictions when each head component is correctly included. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Any single component alone underestimates the required head; omitting drawdown or friction leads to undersized pumps and poor performance. Common Pitfalls: Using static water level instead of pumping water level; drawdown can be significant. Ignoring minor losses (bends, valves) which add up in long pipelines. Final Answer: all the above

Q: Pressure-relief/pressure-reducing provisions on water mains: For controlling excessive pressures and water-hammer risk, pressure relief (or reducing) valves are provided with attention to which of the following placements/functions?

Introduction / Context: Water mains experience elevated static pressures at low elevations and transient surges during rapid valve or pump operations. Pressure-reducing/relief valves (PRVs) are vital hydraulic control devices that protect pipelines, appurtenances, and customer plumbing from overstress and nuisance leakage. Given Data / Assumptions: Pressurized distribution main traversing varied topography. System includes isolation (sluice) valves and other fittings. Objective is to limit both steady and transient over-pressures. Concept / Approach: PRVs reduce high upstream pressures to a setpoint suitable for the downstream zone. Relief valves open when pressure rises above a threshold, discharging flow to limit peak pressures. Placement often targets low points (highest static head) and locations where operational changes (near large valves/pumps) may create damaging surges. Step-by-Step Solution: Function: reduce/relieve excessive pressure to a safe level.Siting: at low points or boundaries between pressure zones.Protection: upstream of critical valves to mitigate surge during closures/openings. Verification / Alternative check: Transient modeling with water-hammer software demonstrates reduced surge amplitudes when PRVs/relief valves are optimally located and sized. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Only at high points for air removal” confuses PRVs with air valves; air valves handle trapped air, not pressure control. Choosing a single siting principle neglects system-wide pressure management. Common Pitfalls: Setting PRVs without considering fire flow; ensure setpoints maintain adequate residual pressure. Ignoring maintenance access and drainage for relief discharges. Final Answer: all the above

Q: Characteristics of ideal filter sand for water treatment: Which set of properties best describes the desired qualities of sand used in rapid or slow sand filters?

Introduction / Context: Filter media quality directly influences run length, headloss development, and effluent turbidity in water treatment plants. Standard specifications describe mineral composition, effective size, uniformity coefficient, and cleanliness for filter sands (and anthracite where dual-media filters are used). Given Data / Assumptions: Media is silica sand free of organic coatings and clay fines. Effective size and uniformity coefficient meet design targets (e.g., d10 and UC). Mechanical strength is adequate to withstand backwashing. Concept / Approach: Cleanliness prevents mudball formation and clogging. Uniform grading ensures predictable headloss and depth-wise particle capture. Hardness and angularity promote durability and better straining/adsorption without excessive breakdown that would generate fines and degrade performance. Step-by-Step Solution: Select clean silica sand with negligible organic/clay content.Specify effective size and uniformity for the filter type (slow vs rapid sand).Ensure hardness and attrition resistance for repeated backwash cycles. Verification / Alternative check: Factory certificates and on-site sieve analyses confirm grading; acid-solubility and turbidity tests confirm cleanliness; pilot runs validate headloss growth and effluent clarity. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Each single property is necessary but not sufficient; high-performing filter media must satisfy all three to ensure stable operations and long media life. Common Pitfalls: Accepting broad gradations that raise headloss or reduce capture efficiency. Overlooking media attrition leading to fine carryover post-backwash. Final Answer: all the above

Q: Average domestic per-capita water demand in Indian cities: Under normal planning and design conditions, which value best represents the typical domestic component per person per day?

Introduction / Context: Per-capita water demand (LPCD) guides sizing of sources, treatment plants, and distribution networks. Indian planning norms often reference standardized figures for the domestic component, considering bathing, cooking, washing, flushing, and other household uses under typical urban conditions. Given Data / Assumptions: Urban Indian setting with piped supply and sewerage. Normal climatic and socioeconomic conditions. Average domestic demand, not including significant commercial or industrial loads. Concept / Approach: Textbook and guideline values commonly quote 135 LPCD for domestic consumption in Indian cities with sewerage, accommodating indoor plumbing and sanitation. This value serves as a baseline; total municipal supply will exceed this to include non-domestic uses and losses, but the domestic component itself is around 135 LPCD. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify parameter: domestic, per-capita, per-day consumption.Recall standard planning figure used in many curricula: 135 litres per capita per day.Choose the option matching this norm. Verification / Alternative check: Many DPRs (Detailed Project Reports) and academic problems adopt 135 LPCD as the default domestic figure; sensitivity analyses adjust around this baseline for local context. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 105–125 litres: may reflect constrained supplies or conservation targets; lower than the common planning baseline. 150 litres: sometimes used, but 135 LPCD is the widely taught norm for domestic component in Indian urban design contexts. Common Pitfalls: Confusing domestic LPCD with total system LPCD which includes public uses and losses. Applying the same figure to rural schemes or water-scarce zones without adjustment. Final Answer: 135 litres

Question 1

Wet and dry intake towers in reservoirs: identify the correct combination Which option correctly states the conditions for wet vs. dry intake towers and buoyancy?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Intake towers control the offtake of water from reservoirs at selectable levels. Two common configurations are “wet” towers, which are flooded to reservoir level, and “dry” towers, which remain dry inside except for intake conduits. Understanding buoyancy and operational implications is fundamental to safe design. Given Data / Assumptions (statements referenced): (a) If ports are closed, a dry intake tower will not have water inside (correct). (b) Even if ports are closed, a wet intake tower is filled up to reservoir level (correct). (c) Dry intake towers require heavier construction to resist buoyant forces (correct). (d) No buoyant force acts on wet intake towers (incorrect; buoyancy acts on any submerged structure). Concept / Approach: Buoyancy acts on a submerged volume regardless of whether the interior is flooded or not; however, a dry tower encloses air and experiences net uplift equal to displaced water weight. A wet tower, being flooded, has reduced net buoyancy but is still subject to hydrostatic pressures and stability checks. Step-by-Step Solution: Assess (a): dry tower interior is normally air; with ports closed, it stays dry → true.Assess (b): wet tower water level tracks reservoir level regardless of port status → true.Assess (c): dry towers must resist uplift; thus heavier construction is common → true.Assess (d): buoyancy does act on wet towers; statement is false. Verification / Alternative check: Design manuals for intake structures consider uplift, hydrostatic pressures, and overturning for both tower types, confirming the above judgments. Why Other Options Are Wrong: (a) alone is incomplete; (d) being false invalidates “All of the above”. “Only (d) correct” is clearly wrong. “None correct” is also wrong as (a)–(c) are valid. Common Pitfalls: Assuming flooding a tower eliminates buoyant effects; it mainly reduces net buoyancy but does not remove hydrostatic actions. Final Answer: Statements (a), (b), and (c) are correct; statement (d) is incorrect

Question 2

Detention time guidelines for plain sedimentation What is the usual range of detention time adopted for a plain sedimentation tank (without coagulation)?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Detention time is the nominal period a water parcel spends in a sedimentation basin. It affects removal efficiency of settleable solids and must be coordinated with surface overflow rate and tank hydraulics. Given Data / Assumptions: Plain sedimentation (no coagulants). Continuous flow rectangular or circular basins with inlet/outlet baffles. Concept / Approach: Empirical practice and design standards recommend a detention time range that balances particle settling with reasonable tank volumes. For plain sedimentation, a 4–8 hour range is widely used to achieve acceptable removal for typical raw water conditions. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify customary ranges: 4–8 hours for plain sedimentation.Shorter times (2–4 hours) risk poor removal; much longer times increase size and cost without proportional benefit.Select 4–8 hours as the standard answer. Verification / Alternative check: Design examples consistently adopt 6 hours within the 4–8 hour band as an initial estimate, fine-tuned via pilot data. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 2–4 hours: commonly too short for plain sedimentation. 8–12 or higher: possible in special cases but not the usual guideline. Common Pitfalls: Ignoring short-circuiting; effective detention can be lower than nominal, so inlet/outlet baffles are critical. Final Answer: 4 to 8 hours

Question 3

Pattern of reservoir sedimentation (silting) over time How does the rate of silting in a reservoir usually vary during its service life?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Sedimentation progressively reduces reservoir capacity. The temporal pattern of deposition influences dead storage sizing, sluicing provisions, and long-term operation strategies. Given Data / Assumptions: Typical alluvial sediment inflow with initial trapping efficiency high. No exceptional sediment management measures at start-up. Concept / Approach: At commissioning, the reservoir has maximum trapping efficiency and ample low-level volume, causing higher initial silt deposition rates. Over time, as delta progrades and storage geometry changes, effective trapping for finer fractions can reduce, and deposition rates tend to decline or shift location within the pool. Step-by-Step Solution: Assess early years: high trapping efficiency and available volume → higher silting rates.Assess later years: reduced incremental capacity and altered flow paths → lower apparent silting rate in the remaining storage.Therefore, the rate is generally more in the beginning and reduces toward the end. Verification / Alternative check: Observed capacity surveys of many reservoirs show early rapid losses followed by slower capacity decline as the delta advances. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Less at beginning: contrary to typical trapping efficiency behavior. Constant: unrealistic given evolving geometry/hydraulics. More in beginning (alone): incomplete without noting later reduction. Common Pitfalls: Assuming linear capacity loss over time; in practice, deposition patterns and management actions change the rate. Final Answer: It is more in the beginning and reduces towards the end

Question 4

In groundwater hydrology, how are shales classified with respect to porosity and permeability? Consider the typical microstructure of shale (very fine-grained, laminated clayey rock) and state which combination best describes its ability to store an…

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: In hydrogeology and water-well engineering, understanding the difference between porosity (ability to store water) and permeability (ability to transmit water) is essential for identifying aquifers and aquitards. Shale, a very fine-grained sedimentary rock, commonly appears in stratigraphic sequences that control groundwater movement. Given Data / Assumptions: Shales are composed largely of clay minerals and silt-sized particles. They typically have a laminated structure and very small pore throats. No secondary fracturing is assumed unless stated (i.e., intact shale). Concept / Approach: Porosity refers to the fraction of void space in a material. Permeability refers to the connectivity and size of pathways that allow flow. Materials with abundant but isolated or extremely small pores can have appreciable porosity but very low permeability. Intact shale is a classic example: water can be stored in microscopic pores but cannot move through easily due to tiny, tortuous, low-conductivity pathways. Step-by-Step Solution: Recognize shale’s texture: fine clay-sized particles lead to very small pores.Porosity: present due to voids between particles and within clay platelets.Permeability: extremely low because pore throats are minute and poorly connected.Conclusion: shale is porous but effectively impermeable in intact conditions. Verification / Alternative check: Field practice categorizes shale layers as aquitards or confining beds, causing perched water or confining artesian aquifers. Laboratory tests show very low hydraulic conductivity values (often orders of magnitude lower than sands and gravels). Why Other Options Are Wrong: Porous only / Permeable only: each describes one property; shale exhibits porosity but not meaningful permeability. Porous and permeable: applies to sands/gravels, not intact shale. Neither porous nor permeable: contradicts the presence of micro-porosity in shales. Common Pitfalls: Confusing fractured shale (which can be locally permeable) with intact shale. Assuming high porosity always implies high yield; permeability controls yield. Final Answer: porous but not permeable

Question 5

Manholes in pipeline systems: In which type of pipe material are manholes (access chambers) least commonly provided, considering typical use as pressure mains versus gravity sewers?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Manholes are vertical access structures primarily associated with gravity sewers to facilitate inspection, cleaning, and maintenance. Pressure water mains, in contrast, commonly use appurtenances such as air valves, scour valves, hydrants, and inline isolation valves rather than manholes at intervals. Given Data / Assumptions: Cast iron and steel pipelines are typically used as pressure mains for water supply. R.C.C. (reinforced cement concrete) pipes are widely used for gravity sewers where manholes are necessary at junctions, changes in direction, and specified spacings. Hume steel pipes are also used for pressure conveyance. Concept / Approach: Manholes are not installed “on” pressure pipelines at intervals because there is no open channel flow to enter; access is instead via valve chambers. Gravity sewers (often R.C.C., stoneware, or PVC) require manholes for maintenance. Therefore, among the listed materials, manholes are least common with cast iron pressure mains (similarly steel and Hume steel), but the canonical exam answer singles out cast iron pipes. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify which materials serve pressure mains: cast iron, steel, Hume steel.Recognize manholes belong to gravity sewers (often R.C.C.).Choose the pressure-main material typically cited in exams: cast iron pipes. Verification / Alternative check: Water distribution drawings show valve/air valve chambers on pressure lines, not manholes. Sewer layout plans show frequent manholes on R.C.C./stoneware sewers. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Steel and Hume steel: also pressure mains with no routine manholes, but the conventional single-answer choice is cast iron. R.C.C. pipes: widely used for gravity sewers; manholes are common. Ductile iron pipes: also pressure mains; not typically provided with manholes. Common Pitfalls: Confusing valve chambers (on pressure lines) with manholes (for gravity sewers). Assuming material alone dictates appurtenances; the flow regime (pressure vs gravity) is decisive. Final Answer: cast iron pipes

Question 6

Why are duplicate (parallel) pipes laid in a water-supply network? Choose the most complete reason set reflecting planning, operation, and reliability considerations.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Parallel mains or duplicate feeders are common in transmission and distribution systems. They bolster capacity, improve reliability during maintenance, and provide flexibility to handle growth in demand or fire flows. Understanding these motives improves network design and asset management planning. Given Data / Assumptions: Urban system with variable daily and seasonal demands. The utility aims to maintain supply during maintenance or failures. Capital planning targets both present and future needs. Concept / Approach: Hydraulically, flow capacity in a pipe scales roughly with diameter^5 in the Hazen–Williams framework for a given headloss and length. Adding a parallel main lowers headloss and increases total conveyance. Operationally, isolation of one main for repair while the other remains in service increases reliability. Strategically, dual mains help meet peak and fire demands without excessive velocities or pressure drops. Step-by-Step Solution: Capacity: a second main shares the flow, reducing headloss and velocity.Maintainability: one line can be isolated while the parallel line maintains supply.Future-proofing: provides redundancy and headroom for growth and emergencies. Verification / Alternative check: Many large utilities specify dual feeders from treatment plants to major service areas, with sectionalizing valves to manage outages and maintain minimum service pressures. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Single motives (A, B, or C alone) are true but incomplete. “To reduce water age only” is too narrow; while lower residence time can result, it is not the primary reason. Common Pitfalls: Assuming a single oversized main is always better; redundancy often outperforms a monolithic asset. Ignoring operational constraints such as surge, valve control, and energy costs. Final Answer: all the above

Question 7

Key groundwater-well terms during pumping: Which combination of statements correctly describes water-level behavior, depression head (drawdown), cone of depression, and radius of influence around a pumped well?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Pumping tests and well hydraulics use several standard terms to quantify aquifer response: drawdown (depression head), cone of depression, and radius of influence. A stilling well or observation well is used to monitor groundwater levels under near-still conditions to avoid dynamic fluctuations. Given Data / Assumptions: Unconfined aquifer with an initially horizontal water table. Steady pumping causes water-level decline near the well. Observation points record levels for analysis. Concept / Approach: Drawdown equals static water level minus pumping water level. Spatial variation of drawdown creates a characteristic cone-shaped surface known as the cone of depression. Radius of influence is the distance from the well at which drawdown becomes negligible for practical purposes. A stilling/observation well reflects the ambient groundwater level (absent rapid dynamic disturbances). Step-by-Step Solution: Identify monitoring: stilling well tracks groundwater level reliably.Define drawdown: s = h_static - h_pumped.Conceptualize the cone of depression around the well.Define radius of influence: distance to near-zero drawdown. Verification / Alternative check: Log-log and semi-log analyses (e.g., Theis, Cooper–Jacob) utilize observation well drawdowns to estimate transmissivity and storativity, consistent with these definitions. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Each individual statement (A–D) is correct; the most complete choice is “All the above.” Selecting only one omits the integrated description of well hydraulics terms. Common Pitfalls: Equating radius of influence with aquifer boundary; it is a practical extent of measurable drawdown. For confined aquifers, the potentiometric surface responds similarly even though the water table is not exposed. Final Answer: All the above

Question 8

Water treatment selection: Which process is specifically adopted to remove very fine suspended particles that are not effectively settled by plain sedimentation?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Public water treatment trains use a sequence of unit processes that progressively remove contaminants: screening for coarse debris, coagulation–flocculation, sedimentation for settleable solids, and filtration for fine suspended matter that escapes settling. Correctly matching the process to the target particle size is critical for plant performance. Given Data / Assumptions: Very fine suspended particles are present after sedimentation. No specialized membrane systems are considered; focus is on conventional rapid sand filtration or slow sand filtration. Concept / Approach: Filtration passes water through granular media (sand, anthracite) where mechanisms such as straining, interception, and adsorption remove remaining turbidity. Microflocs generated by coagulation are captured effectively, producing low-turbidity, pathogen-reduced effluent suitable for disinfection. Step-by-Step Solution: Discard screening: targets large debris only.Acknowledge sedimentation: removes heavier particles but leaves fine colloids.Identify filtration: designed for fine suspended removal following coagulation.Confirm that filtration is the standard step before final disinfection. Verification / Alternative check: Plant performance data show significant turbidity reduction across filters even when clarifier effluent turbidity is modest (e.g., 2–5 NTU). Filtration achieves finished water turbidities often < 0.3–1 NTU under optimized conditions. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Screening: removes rags and sticks; ineffective for fines. Sedimentation: not sufficient for stable colloids. Boiling: a household-scale disinfection method; not a turbidity removal step. Solar distillation: not a conventional municipal process for turbidity control. Common Pitfalls: Assuming disinfection replaces filtration; disinfectants are less effective in turbid water. Skipping coagulation leads to filter breakthrough and short runs. Final Answer: filtration

Question 9

Gravity conduits in water conveyance: In practice, gravity conduits that carry water under free-surface or mild pressure conditions commonly take which forms?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Long-distance water transfer schemes frequently rely on gravity conveyance to minimize energy cost. Depending on terrain and geotechnical constraints, engineers use open channels (canals), elevated or supported conduits (flumes and aqueducts), and bored passages (tunnels) to maintain hydraulic grade and deliver required flows. Given Data / Assumptions: System is designed for predominantly gravity flow. Route crosses varied terrain including valleys and ridges. Hydraulic grade line must remain above the conduit invert. Concept / Approach: Choice of conduit type balances hydraulic efficiency, structural feasibility, right-of-way, and capital cost. Canals are economical on gentle terrain; flumes and aqueducts carry water across depressions; tunnels maintain grade through hills. All are standard parts of gravity schemes, often combined along a single alignment. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify terrain constraints along the alignment.Select the appropriate structure: canal, flume/aqueduct, or tunnel.Recognize that comprehensive schemes use multiple forms. Verification / Alternative check: Famous projects (e.g., aqueduct systems supplying cities) showcase combined use of canals, tunnels, and elevated aqueducts to keep the hydraulic grade consistently descending. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Each single structure alone is not universally applicable; the correct holistic answer is that all listed forms are used as gravity conduits where appropriate. Common Pitfalls: Assuming pressure pipelines are mandatory; gravity works efficiently if topography permits. Ignoring headlosses from transitions; smooth geometry and appurtenances are key. Final Answer: all the above

Question 10

Total dynamic head for pumping: The head against which a pump–motor set must work to lift water includes which components under typical design conditions?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Proper pump selection requires calculating the Total Dynamic Head (TDH) against which the pump must operate. TDH aggregates static elevation differences and head losses so that the pump–motor combination delivers the required discharge efficiently and reliably. Given Data / Assumptions: Pumping from a well or sump to a delivery point at higher elevation. Water level lowers during pumping (drawdown). Water flows through a discharge pipeline with finite length, diameter, and fittings. Concept / Approach: TDH typically consists of static head (difference in elevation from pumping water level to discharge point), plus friction losses along pipes and appurtenances, plus minor velocity head at discharge if relevant. Including drawdown ensures the pump can handle worst-case lowered water levels during operation. Step-by-Step Solution: Static lift: elevation difference including maximum drawdown.Friction losses: compute using headloss equations and sum fittings losses.Velocity head: v^2 / (2g) at the discharge section if specified by design.Sum components: TDH = static + friction + velocity head. Verification / Alternative check: Pump curves are selected by TDH at design flow. Field commissioning confirms operating point close to curve predictions when each head component is correctly included. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Any single component alone underestimates the required head; omitting drawdown or friction leads to undersized pumps and poor performance. Common Pitfalls: Using static water level instead of pumping water level; drawdown can be significant. Ignoring minor losses (bends, valves) which add up in long pipelines. Final Answer: all the above

Question 11

Pressure-relief/pressure-reducing provisions on water mains: For controlling excessive pressures and water-hammer risk, pressure relief (or reducing) valves are provided with attention to which of the following placements/functions?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Water mains experience elevated static pressures at low elevations and transient surges during rapid valve or pump operations. Pressure-reducing/relief valves (PRVs) are vital hydraulic control devices that protect pipelines, appurtenances, and customer plumbing from overstress and nuisance leakage. Given Data / Assumptions: Pressurized distribution main traversing varied topography. System includes isolation (sluice) valves and other fittings. Objective is to limit both steady and transient over-pressures. Concept / Approach: PRVs reduce high upstream pressures to a setpoint suitable for the downstream zone. Relief valves open when pressure rises above a threshold, discharging flow to limit peak pressures. Placement often targets low points (highest static head) and locations where operational changes (near large valves/pumps) may create damaging surges. Step-by-Step Solution: Function: reduce/relieve excessive pressure to a safe level.Siting: at low points or boundaries between pressure zones.Protection: upstream of critical valves to mitigate surge during closures/openings. Verification / Alternative check: Transient modeling with water-hammer software demonstrates reduced surge amplitudes when PRVs/relief valves are optimally located and sized. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Only at high points for air removal” confuses PRVs with air valves; air valves handle trapped air, not pressure control. Choosing a single siting principle neglects system-wide pressure management. Common Pitfalls: Setting PRVs without considering fire flow; ensure setpoints maintain adequate residual pressure. Ignoring maintenance access and drainage for relief discharges. Final Answer: all the above

Question 12

Characteristics of ideal filter sand for water treatment: Which set of properties best describes the desired qualities of sand used in rapid or slow sand filters?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Filter media quality directly influences run length, headloss development, and effluent turbidity in water treatment plants. Standard specifications describe mineral composition, effective size, uniformity coefficient, and cleanliness for filter sands (and anthracite where dual-media filters are used). Given Data / Assumptions: Media is silica sand free of organic coatings and clay fines. Effective size and uniformity coefficient meet design targets (e.g., d10 and UC). Mechanical strength is adequate to withstand backwashing. Concept / Approach: Cleanliness prevents mudball formation and clogging. Uniform grading ensures predictable headloss and depth-wise particle capture. Hardness and angularity promote durability and better straining/adsorption without excessive breakdown that would generate fines and degrade performance. Step-by-Step Solution: Select clean silica sand with negligible organic/clay content.Specify effective size and uniformity for the filter type (slow vs rapid sand).Ensure hardness and attrition resistance for repeated backwash cycles. Verification / Alternative check: Factory certificates and on-site sieve analyses confirm grading; acid-solubility and turbidity tests confirm cleanliness; pilot runs validate headloss growth and effluent clarity. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Each single property is necessary but not sufficient; high-performing filter media must satisfy all three to ensure stable operations and long media life. Common Pitfalls: Accepting broad gradations that raise headloss or reduce capture efficiency. Overlooking media attrition leading to fine carryover post-backwash. Final Answer: all the above

Question 13

Average domestic per-capita water demand in Indian cities: Under normal planning and design conditions, which value best represents the typical domestic component per person per day?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Per-capita water demand (LPCD) guides sizing of sources, treatment plants, and distribution networks. Indian planning norms often reference standardized figures for the domestic component, considering bathing, cooking, washing, flushing, and other household uses under typical urban conditions. Given Data / Assumptions: Urban Indian setting with piped supply and sewerage. Normal climatic and socioeconomic conditions. Average domestic demand, not including significant commercial or industrial loads. Concept / Approach: Textbook and guideline values commonly quote 135 LPCD for domestic consumption in Indian cities with sewerage, accommodating indoor plumbing and sanitation. This value serves as a baseline; total municipal supply will exceed this to include non-domestic uses and losses, but the domestic component itself is around 135 LPCD. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify parameter: domestic, per-capita, per-day consumption.Recall standard planning figure used in many curricula: 135 litres per capita per day.Choose the option matching this norm. Verification / Alternative check: Many DPRs (Detailed Project Reports) and academic problems adopt 135 LPCD as the default domestic figure; sensitivity analyses adjust around this baseline for local context. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 105–125 litres: may reflect constrained supplies or conservation targets; lower than the common planning baseline. 150 litres: sometimes used, but 135 LPCD is the widely taught norm for domestic component in Indian urban design contexts. Common Pitfalls: Confusing domestic LPCD with total system LPCD which includes public uses and losses. Applying the same figure to rural schemes or water-scarce zones without adjustment. Final Answer: 135 litres

Question 14

Water distribution design – selecting the reservoir type when both gravity and pumping are used In municipal water-supply practice, when a distribution system operates with a combination of gravity flow (from an elevated storage) and pumping (from t…

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Cities commonly blend gravity and pumped delivery. Treatment plants or intakes pump into storage, while consumers receive water by gravity from strategically located reservoirs that provide pressure and reliability. Choosing the reservoir type is central to hydraulic performance and service continuity. Given Data / Assumptions: The system uses both pumping (to fill storage) and gravity (to distribute to customers). Reservoir must equalize hourly demand, meet fire flow, and stabilize pressures. Urban setting with variable topography and zoning. Concept / Approach: An elevated service reservoir (ESR) stores treated water above ground on a tower so that flow to the network is driven by static head. Pumps can run at near-constant rate to refill the ESR, while consumers draw by gravity during peaks. An Intze tank is a structural form of ESR, so it is an example of the same concept rather than a distinct function. Ground-level reservoirs and clear-water sumps require booster pumping for distribution and cannot maintain pressure during outages. Stand pipes provide limited volume and are uncommon for large distribution zones. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the need for head and storage → elevated storage provides both.Recognize that the pump fills the reservoir; end users are supplied by gravity from the reservoir.Conclude that an elevated service reservoir (ESR) is the standard choice. Verification / Alternative check: Design manuals show typical duty-point operation with pumps refilling ESRs during off-peak hours, while ESRs meet peak-hour demands without additional pumping to the network. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Ground-level reservoir/sump: needs continuous pumping to maintain pressure. Stand pipe: limited volume, not suitable for large zones. Intze tank: not wrong in function, but it is a type of elevated tank; the general correct answer is ESR. Clear-water sump: storage before pumping only, not distribution storage. Common Pitfalls: Confusing structural form (Intze) with function (elevated storage). The functional requirement is met by an ESR regardless of its structural shape. Final Answer: Elevated service reservoir (overhead tank)

Question 15

Empirical sizing – Lea’s formula for economical pipe diameter for pumped flow For a discharge Q (in m^3/s) to be pumped in a transmission main, Lea suggested an empirical relation for the economical internal diameter D (in m). Which of the following…

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Selecting an economical diameter for a pumped main balances capital cost (larger pipe is costlier) against operating cost (smaller pipe increases headloss and pumping energy). Empirical formulas like Lea’s give a quick first estimate before refined hydraulic and life-cycle analyses. Given Data / Assumptions: D in metres, Q in m^3/s (cumecs). Continuous pumped transmission (not intermittent distribution line sizing). Typical cost and energy price assumptions embedded in the empirical constant. Concept / Approach: For turbulent flow, headloss varies roughly with Q^2/D^5 (for Darcy–Weisbach with fixed roughness). Pumping power therefore rises rapidly as diameter decreases, while pipe capital cost increases with diameter. Minimizing total annualized cost yields a diameter proportional to the square root of discharge: D ∝ Q^0.5. Lea’s constant 1.22 reflects specific economic assumptions in traditional practice. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the scaling → economical D varies as Q^0.5 (square root dependence).Among the options, only one includes Q^0.5 → D = 1.22 * Q^0.5.Select the expression that matches Lea’s suggested value. Verification / Alternative check: Back-of-the-envelope checks: a tenfold increase in discharge increases the economical diameter by about √10 ≈ 3.16 times, which aligns with energy–capital trade-offs found in practice. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Linear relations (D ∝ Q) significantly oversize small flows and undersize large flows. Different constants multiplying Q (without exponent) ignore the correct scaling law. Common Pitfalls: Treating empirical results as final; after obtaining a first estimate, perform full headloss, NPSH, transients, and life-cycle cost analyses. Final Answer: D = 1.22 * Q^0.5

Question 16

Valves in water-supply – seating form for a valve fitted in a recess against a pipe opening The valve that seats closely in a machined recess at an opening in a pipe typically uses which disc/closure form?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Distribution systems use several valve types. The geometry of the closure element determines seating, loss characteristics, and suitability for isolation or throttling. A valve that closes into a recess in line with the pipe opening is generally a gate (sluice) valve. Given Data / Assumptions: Valve is intended primarily for isolation (fully open or fully closed). Seat is located within a recess matching the pipe opening profile. Common water-works practice. Concept / Approach: Sluice (gate) valves employ a wedge-shaped circular gate that moves perpendicular to the flow to seat tightly within a recess. This provides low headloss when fully open and positive shutoff when closed. Globe valves use a conical disc against a seat for throttling, not typically in a flush recess aligned with the full-bore opening. Butterfly valves use a rotating plate and do not seat in a recess around the opening in the same manner. Step-by-Step Solution: Match “recess seating in the opening” to the wedge-shaped gate design → sluice valve.Eliminate spherical and parallelopiped forms which do not match standard water-works closures.Conclude with the wedge-shaped circular disc as the conventional choice. Verification / Alternative check: Standards for water-distribution isolation valves describe resilient-seated or metal-seated gate valves with wedge geometry to fit within body recesses. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Spherical or rectangular blocks are not standard closures in distribution mains. Conical discs fit globe valves, primarily for throttling, not recess seating aligned with full-bore opening. Butterfly plates rotate on a shaft and do not use a seating recess like a gate. Common Pitfalls: Using globe valves for isolation in large mains leads to high losses; gate or butterfly valves are preferred for isolation. Final Answer: Wedge-shaped circular disc (sluice/gate valve)

Question 17

Well hydraulics – time–distance relation for equal drawdown in an artesian aquifer Two observation wells at distances r1 and r2 from a pumped well in a confined (artesian) aquifer show the same drawdown at times t1 and t2 hours after pumping starts.…

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Pumping-test analysis in confined aquifers often uses type curves or simplifying relations. A useful heuristic is that the time at which a given drawdown is observed at an observation well scales approximately with the square of the distance from the pumped well under homogeneous conditions. Given Data / Assumptions: Confined (artesian) aquifer of uniform transmissivity and storativity. Constant-rate pumping begins at t = 0. Equal drawdown observed at r1 at time t1 and at r2 at time t2. Concept / Approach: Solutions based on the Theis equation (exponential integral) and its Cooper–Jacob approximation indicate that the “propagation” of a given drawdown contour outward from the pumped well scales with r^2/t approximately constant for a fixed drawdown level. Therefore, for the same drawdown, time is proportional to the square of distance. Step-by-Step Solution: For equal drawdown s: r^2 / t ≈ constant → t ∝ r^2.Hence, t2 / t1 = (r2^2) / (r1^2) = (r2 / r1)^2.Choose the option that exactly matches this proportionality. Verification / Alternative check: Cooper–Jacob straight-line method in semi-log plots shows that for a given s, the “time–distance” shift corresponds to r^2 scaling, consistent with the relation given. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Linear scaling with r or inverse relations contradict the diffusion character of confined aquifers. t1 = t2 ignores distance effects entirely. Common Pitfalls: Applying the relation to unconfined conditions without caution; delayed yield and nonlinearity in unconfined aquifers modify the simple scaling. Final Answer: t2 / t1 = (r2 / r1)^2

Question 18

Alkalinity in water – forms present in natural and treated supplies Which forms of alkalinity may be present in a water sample (depending on its chemistry and treatment history)?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Alkalinity is the acid-neutralizing capacity of water and is important for corrosion control, coagulation optimization, and biological stability in distribution. It typically arises from carbonate species and added bases. Given Data / Assumptions: Water may be raw (natural) or treated. Species considered: HCO3-, CO3^2-, OH-, and combinations introduced by caustic addition. Concept / Approach: At typical water pH values, alkalinity is predominantly as bicarbonate (HCO3-). With higher pH (e.g., after lime/soda ash/caustic dosing), carbonate (CO3^2-) and hydroxide (OH-) fractions can appear. “Caustic alkalinity” is often used to denote the portion attributable to strong base additions producing hydroxide/carbonate alkalinity. Step-by-Step Solution: Recognize bicarbonate as the dominant species in most natural waters.Account for carbonate and hydroxide at elevated pH during softening/corrosion control.Therefore, all listed forms may occur depending on conditions. Verification / Alternative check: Standard titration with phenolphthalein and methyl orange indicators partitions total alkalinity into hydroxide, carbonate, and bicarbonate components. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Any single form alone ignores the pH-dependent speciation found in practice. Common Pitfalls: Equating alkalinity with hardness; they are distinct although both can involve carbonate species. Final Answer: All the above

Question 19

Springs – which type generally yields the highest discharge? Among common spring types, from which type is a higher yield generally expected for water-supply development?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Springs can be important localized sources of potable water. Their yield depends on aquifer type, recharge, and hydraulic head. For system design, understanding which springs tend to give higher sustained discharges is valuable. Given Data / Assumptions: Typical hydrogeologic settings for gravity, surface, and artesian springs. Comparison is qualitative (general trend). Concept / Approach: Artesian (confined) aquifers store water under pressure between impervious layers. Where a confining layer is breached, artesian springs may discharge at substantial rates, sometimes flowing naturally without pumping. Gravity and surface springs can be reliable but often have lower, more seasonal yields tied to local recharge and storage. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify confined, pressurized storage as the driver of higher yields → artesian springs.Compare with gravity/surface springs where head and storage are limited.Select the highest-yielding type in general practice. Verification / Alternative check: Case studies and hydrogeologic surveys frequently exploit artesian conditions for municipal supplies due to dependable head and yields. Why Other Options Are Wrong: (a) and (b) can be productive locally but usually provide lower, more variable flows. (d) “All equally” is not accurate; hydrogeology controls yields. (e) Geysers are rare and not used for potable supply. Common Pitfalls: Assuming a high instantaneous spring flow equates to sustainable yield; long-term monitoring is required. Final Answer: Artesian springs (confined aquifer under pressure)

Question 20

Groundwater terminology – name of the level of underground water In hydrogeology and water-supply engineering, the level at which the pressure in the pore water equals atmospheric pressure (upper surface of the saturated zone) is called the:

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Accurate terminology avoids design mistakes in well placement, dewatering, and foundation engineering. The upper boundary of groundwater saturation is fundamental to these tasks. Given Data / Assumptions: Saturated zone exists below a variably thick capillary fringe. Atmospheric pressure defines zero gauge pressure. Concept / Approach: The water table (phreatic surface) is the locus of points in an unconfined aquifer where water pressure equals atmospheric pressure. Above it lies the unsaturated (vadose) zone, often with a capillary fringe just above the water table. “Water level” is a generic term, “invert level” is a sewer/channel reference elevation, and “negative level” is not a hydrogeologic term. Step-by-Step Solution: Define the surface of saturation → water table.Differentiate from capillary fringe (suction pressures).Pick the precise hydrogeologic term. Verification / Alternative check: Piezometric measurements in wells intersecting unconfined aquifers show static levels coincident with the water table. Why Other Options Are Wrong: (a) Too vague; not specific to saturated-zone boundary. (c) Not standard terminology. (d) Used for conduits, not aquifers. (e) Not the same as the water table; it lies above and is unsaturated but moist. Common Pitfalls: Confusing piezometric surface in confined aquifers with the water table in unconfined conditions. Final Answer: Water table (phreatic surface)

Water Supply Engineering Questions