Gravity conveyance from sources – typical conduit types In water-supply engineering, gravity conduits conveying water from the source to treatment or storage may be built as which of the following types?

Introduction / Context:
Gravity conveyance systems avoid pumping energy by maintaining hydraulic grade from the source. Depending on terrain and crossings, engineers select open channels, flumes, or aqueduct structures.

Given Data / Assumptions:

• Moderate gradients enabling gravity flow.
• Structural and hydraulic design adequate to prevent overtopping and erosion.
• Terminology follows standard water-resources practice.

Concept / Approach:
Canals are ground-supported open channels; flumes are above-ground troughs (timber, steel, or concrete) supported on frames; aqueducts are elevated conveyances, often bridge-like, to cross depressions or rivers. All serve gravity transport when pressurization is unnecessary or undesirable.

Step-by-Step Solution:
Relate each term to a structural conveyance method.All listed are recognized gravity conduit types.Therefore 'All the above' is correct.

Verification / Alternative check:
Historic and modern schemes (Roman aqueducts to modern lined canals and steel flumes) exemplify these variants.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

• Choosing a single option omits valid alternatives; 'None' is clearly incorrect.

Common Pitfalls:
Confusing aqueducts with pressurized pipelines; overlooking structural demands (thermal movement, supports) for flumes; ignoring freeboard in canal design.

Final Answer:
All the above