Question 1

Refractory mixing for hand moulding: up to what maximum water content is commonly allowed in a refractory mix when it is prepared for hand moulding?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Workability of refractory mixes depends on water content, binder type, and grain-size distribution. For hand moulding, higher plasticity is required than for machine-pressed shapes, so allowable water ranges are broader. Excess water, however, raises porosity after drying and firing, reducing strength and slag resistance. Given Data / Assumptions: Plastic fireclay-type mixes for hand ramming or hand moulding. No special low-water chemical-bond systems (e.g., castables with deflocculants) are implied. Objective: identify the upper typical water range for hand moulding. Concept / Approach: Hand moulding requires sufficient water to achieve plasticity for manual shaping and to ensure bonding prior to drying. Standard practice allows higher moisture compared to dry pressing. Typical guidance: machine pressing 3–7%, stiff-mud/extrusion 7–12%, and hand moulding as high as 14–20%, recognizing the trade-off between ease of forming and final porosity after firing. Step-by-Step Solution: Classify forming method: hand moulding demands higher plasticity.Recall typical moisture bands by forming method.Select the highest appropriate band: 14–20% for hand moulding mixes. Verification / Alternative check: Process manuals and plant experience corroborate that hand-moulded shapes carry higher water content, which must be removed gradually during drying to prevent cracking or lamination defects. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 2–3% and 5–7%: typical for dry pressing and machine pressing; insufficient for hand moulding. 7–12%: aligns with stiff-mud/extrusion, not hand moulding maxima. 25–30%: excessive, leading to high shrinkage and cracking. Common Pitfalls: Using too much water and accelerating drying, causing blowouts; assuming castable practices (with dispersants) apply to plastic hand-mould mixes. Final Answer: 14–20%

Question 2

When is very high thermal conductivity not a priority? Identify the furnace/service where high thermal conductivity of the refractory is least important.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Thermal conductivity of refractories governs heat flow through furnace walls and internal structures. In heat exchangers like regenerators and recuperators, high conductivity improves heat transfer. In contrast, in furnaces where containment and insulation are key, lower conductivity reduces heat losses and improves temperature uniformity. Given Data / Assumptions: Comparison among regenerators/recuperators (heat-exchanging roles), blast furnaces (severe thermal and chemical loads), and muffle furnaces (isolated chamber). Goal: identify where high conductivity is not a prime requirement. Concept / Approach: Coke-oven regenerators and recuperators rely on refractories to temporarily store and transfer heat; higher conductivity aids this duty. Blast furnaces require robust linings; conductivity interacts with cooling and skull formation strategies but cannot be arbitrarily low. A muffle furnace uses a lined chamber to separate products from combustion gases; here the lining’s role is containment and insulation, so low conductivity (good insulation) is preferred, making high conductivity unimportant or even undesirable. Step-by-Step Solution: Classify duty: heat storage/transfer vs insulation/containment.Note regenerators/recuperators benefit from higher conductivity.Identify muffle furnace as an insulated chamber needing low heat loss → high conductivity not a priority. Verification / Alternative check: Furnace design texts specify insulating refractories (low k) for muffle walls to minimize energy consumption and stabilize internal temperatures. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Regenerators/recuperators: heat transfer function favors higher k. Blast furnace: complex duty; excessively low k can impair thermal management. Waste-heat boilers: metallic heat exchange dominates; refractory selection focuses on protection, not maximizing k in the lining. Common Pitfalls: Assuming one “best” conductivity fits all furnaces; neglecting that high-k linings increase heat loss in insulated chambers. Final Answer: Muffle furnace (product isolated from flame)

Question 3

Binding agents for refractory mixes: silica bricks are susceptible to basic slags. Which of the following is not used as a binding material by itself when preparing refractory mixes?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Refractory mixes often include binders to impart green strength for handling, shaping, and initial firing. Appropriate binders vary with chemistry (acidic/basic), service temperature, and curing mechanism. Understanding what constitutes a binder—and what does not—prevents processing defects and premature failure. Given Data / Assumptions: Common binders: phosphates (e.g., aluminium phosphate), hydraulic lime/cement, gypsum (plaster of Paris), sodium silicate, and chemical-setting systems. Vehicle: water facilitates mixing and workability but is not itself a chemical binder. Concept / Approach: A binder chemically sets or hardens to create interparticle bonding prior to firing. Water is a mixing medium; it assists plasticity and dissolves/activates true binders but does not create bonds by itself after drying (it evaporates, leaving weak, friable bodies). In contrast, aluminium phosphate forms phosphate bonds, lime hydrates/carbonates, plaster of Paris hydrates to gypsum, and sodium silicate sets via carbonation or dehydration, all producing binding phases. Step-by-Step Solution: List substances: identify which undergo chemical setting.Recognize water as a vehicle only; no binding action upon drying alone.Therefore, water is not a binding material by itself. Verification / Alternative check: Processing guides specify minimum water additions with binder solids; without binders, dried shapes lack green strength, confirming water’s non-binding role. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Aluminium phosphate: chemical binder forming phosphate networks. Lime: hydraulic/air-setting binder in basic systems. Plaster of Paris: sets by hydration to gypsum, providing early strength. Sodium silicate: chemical binder that hardens through CO2 gassing or drying. Common Pitfalls: Equating plasticity from water with strength; overdosing water, which increases drying shrinkage and cracking. Final Answer: Water

Question 4

Application limits of fireclay bricks: in which of the following metallurgical processes are fireclay (acidic) bricks never used due to severe chemical attack?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Refractory selection hinges on slag chemistry. Acidic refractories such as fireclay and silica withstand acidic slags but are rapidly corroded by basic slags rich in CaO, FeO, and alkalis. Choosing the wrong brick chemistry for a furnace campaign can cause catastrophic wear and unplanned outages. Given Data / Assumptions: Fireclay bricks are acidic/neutral in behavior. Lead blast furnaces generate aggressive basic slags. Coke oven walls commonly employ silica at the hot face; fireclay is used in ancillary zones. Concept / Approach: Basic slags dissolve silica and aluminosilicates. Therefore, acidic fireclay bricks are incompatible with basic iron- or lead-smelting slags and must be replaced with basic refractories (e.g., magnesite, dolomite, or carbon-bonded systems) in those zones. While fireclay may appear in some auxiliary structures, it is never used where the basic slag directly impinges, such as the working linings of a lead blast furnace. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify slag chemistry for each process.Lead blast furnace → basic slag → acidic bricks unsuitable.Choose “Lead blast furnace” as the process where fireclay bricks are never used for working linings. Verification / Alternative check: Metallurgical texts prescribe basic refractories for lead and copper smelting furnaces; coke ovens use silica for walls with fireclay in other components, validating the selection. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Beehive coke oven: fireclay is used in certain parts. Coke oven walls: hot face is silica, but fireclay is used elsewhere; “never used” does not apply to the entire plant. Zinc roaster: material compatibility varies; statement “never” is too strong. Glass tank checkers: fireclay may be used in checkerworks depending on service. Common Pitfalls: Assuming brick compatibility without analyzing slag basicity index; confusing hot-face brick with backup/insulating layers. Final Answer: Lead blast furnace

Question 5

Thermal expansion of refractory bricks: up to 1000 °C, which brick type exhibits very low linear thermal expansion (≤ 0.5%)?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Dimensional stability with temperature is critical for tight-tolerance linings and interlocking brickwork. Excessive thermal expansion leads to spalling, joint closure, and structural stress. Knowing typical expansion ranges for common brick chemistries informs design of expansion joints and choice of anchors. Given Data / Assumptions: Temperature reference: up to about 1000 °C. We compare common bricks: fireclay, silica, magnesite, and corundum (high-alumina). Concept / Approach: Fireclay bricks generally show relatively low linear expansion to 1000 °C, often around 0.4–0.6%, depending on formulation and firing. Silica bricks display higher and more complex expansion due to polymorphic transformations of silica; magnesite bricks exhibit higher expansion typical of basic refractories; corundum (high-Al2O3) expansions are moderate to higher than fireclay in this range. Therefore, among the choices, fireclay provides the lowest expansion up to 1000 °C and fits the ≤ 0.5% criterion frequently cited in handbooks for selected grades. Step-by-Step Solution: Recall typical expansion data: fireclay ≈ 0.5% at 1000 °C.Contrast with silica (higher due to α–β quartz and other transitions) and magnesite (basic brick with larger expansion).Select “Fireclay brick” as the lowest-expanding among the listed types at 1000 °C. Verification / Alternative check: Manufacturer datasheets show fireclay grades with 0.4–0.6% expansion at 1000 °C; silica bricks often exceed 1% with distinct transformation peaks, confirming the selection. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Silica brick: larger expansion and transformation-induced changes. Magnesite brick: typically higher expansion than fireclay. Corundum brick: may be near or above 0.6–0.8% depending on grade. Chrome brick: also higher than fireclay in this range. Common Pitfalls: Applying single values universally; actual expansion depends on specific composition, porosity, and firing—always consult datasheets. Final Answer: Fireclay brick

Question 6

Silica content for coke-oven silica bricks: the typical SiO2 percentage in silica refractories used for coke-oven walls is approximately what value?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Coke-oven walls operate at high temperatures and require bricks with excellent creep resistance and volume stability. Silica bricks, made with high-purity quartzites, are standard for this duty. Their performance depends strongly on the SiO2 content and mineralogical transformations during service. Given Data / Assumptions: We refer to silica bricks specifically for coke-oven walls. Typical industry specifications demand very high SiO2 content. Concept / Approach: High-purity silica bricks for coke-oven applications commonly exceed 94–96% SiO2. Such purity ensures desirable transformation behavior and minimal deleterious impurities that could lower softening temperature or increase creep. Therefore, the representative value among the options is about 95%. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify material: silica brick for coke-oven walls.Recall purity requirement: mid-90s percent SiO2.Select 95% as the typical composition figure. Verification / Alternative check: Vendor specifications and coke-oven design manuals list SiO2 typically ≥ 94–96% with low alkali and alumina impurities, supporting the 95% benchmark. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 45–80%: too low for coke-oven grade silica bricks; such compositions align more with fireclay or mixed aluminosilicates. 60–70%: mid-range aluminosilicates, not high-purity silica. Common Pitfalls: Confusing “silica brick” with generic “silicate” materials; overlooking that small impurity levels can drastically affect creep and spalling resistance in cyclic service. Final Answer: 95%

Question 7

Refractoriness Under Load (RUL): in which furnace location is RUL the most critical property for selecting refractory bricks?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Refractoriness Under Load (RUL) measures a refractory’s ability to resist deformation at high temperature under compressive stress. It complements simple refractoriness (PCE) by accounting for mechanical load during service. Properly prioritizing RUL is essential in zones where bricks support weight at elevated temperatures. Given Data / Assumptions: Furnace zones experience different combinations of temperature and mechanical load. Hearths and piers bear the heaviest static loads near operating temperatures. Roofs/crowns are often in tension/thermal shock but with low compressive load. Concept / Approach: Where bricks carry substantial load at high temperature (e.g., hearth bottoms, piers supporting checkers or stacks of stock), RUL becomes the primary selection criterion to prevent creep, crushing, or plastic flow. Insulating layers, by contrast, operate at lower temperatures with minimal load, making RUL less critical than thermal conductivity and shrinkage. Roofs prioritize thermal shock resistance and spall resistance more than RUL because mechanical loads are modest. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify high-load, high-temperature zone: hearth bottom where stock sits.Relate property to duty: RUL quantifies deformation under compressive stress at temperature.Select the option describing the hearth/stock-bearing location. Verification / Alternative check: Design practices specify high-RUL bricks for soaking-pit bottoms, reheating furnace hearths, and checker supports, confirming the prioritization of RUL in load-bearing hot zones. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Insulation back-up: load is low; thermal conductivity and shrinkage dominate. Suspended roof: low compressive load; thermal shock and spalling resistance are more critical. Cold stack zones: temperatures are lower; RUL is not the limiting factor. Common Pitfalls: Specifying materials solely by PCE without considering mechanical load; neglecting creep under sustained hot load leading to misalignment or collapse. Final Answer: At the hearth bottom of the furnace where stock is placed (bearing heavy load)

Question 8

Refractory engineering: zircon (ZrSiO4) refractories are characterized by which combination of properties in service (consider thermal expansion, refractoriness under load, and resistance to spalling)?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Zircon refractories are based on zircon (ZrSiO4) and are widely used where dimensional stability and resistance to thermal cycling are important, such as glass-contact applications, slide gates, and kiln furniture. This question asks you to recognize the signature trio of properties that make zircon products valuable in demanding thermal environments: low thermal expansion, high refractoriness (including refractoriness under load), and strong resistance to spalling. Given Data / Assumptions: Zircon is the principal phase; minor additives/binders may be present. RUL refers to the temperature where a specified creep/deflection occurs under load. Spalling resistance relates to thermal shock and sudden temperature changes. Concept / Approach: Thermal stress in refractories scales with elastic modulus, temperature gradient, and the coefficient of thermal expansion. Materials with low expansion develop lower thermal stress for the same temperature swing, improving spalling resistance. Zircon also exhibits high refractoriness and a high RUL, meaning it retains shape and load-bearing capability at very elevated temperatures. The combined effect leads to long lining life when temperature fluctuations or mechanical loads are present. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify zircon’s thermal expansion: among the lowest for oxide refractories.Correlate low expansion with improved thermal-shock (anti-spalling) behavior.Recall typical RUL for zircon refractories is around 1600 °C, with refractoriness exceeding 2000 °C.Therefore, options (a), (b), and (c) all correctly describe zircon refractories. Verification / Alternative check: Service records in glass furnaces and kilns show zircon components resist thermal cycling and maintain tolerances better than many alumino-silicate bricks, confirming the property set. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “None of the above” contradicts well-documented zircon behavior. Common Pitfalls: Confusing zircon (ZrSiO4) with zirconia (ZrO2). Zirconia has transformation-toughening phenomena; zircon’s low expansion drives its anti-spalling reputation. Final Answer: All (a), (b) and (c)

Question 9

Industrial furnaces: electrical resistor/heating bars used as elements in high-temperature furnaces are commonly made of which refractory material?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Resistive heating elements for industrial furnaces must combine high electrical resistivity at temperature with oxidation resistance, mechanical integrity, and predictable aging. Silicon carbide (SiC) elements—often marketed as “globars”—are a classic choice for continuous service up to the 1400–1600 °C range depending on atmosphere and design. Given Data / Assumptions: We are referring to solid resistor bars/elements that heat by Joule heating. Operating atmospheres may be oxidizing at high temperatures. Mechanical robustness and dimensional stability are desirable. Concept / Approach: SiC forms a protective silica (SiO2) scale in oxidizing atmospheres, limiting further oxidation and enabling long life. Its resistivity increases with temperature initially, then decreases at very high temperatures, enabling controllable power characteristics. Alumina and zirconia are excellent insulators (not conductors) and thus are unsuitable as resistor bars. Graphite is conductive and used as heating elements in inert/reducing atmospheres, but it oxidizes rapidly in air, making it less suitable where oxidizing service is expected without protective measures. Step-by-Step Solution: List candidates by electrical behavior: SiC and graphite conduct; alumina/zirconia are insulators.Consider atmosphere: SiC tolerates oxidizing atmospheres better than graphite due to silica scale.Industry practice prefers SiC for resistor bars in many electric kilns/furnaces.Select silicon carbide. Verification / Alternative check: Product datasheets for SiC elements specify operating ranges and resistance-versus-temperature curves, aligning with widespread industrial use. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Alumina/zirconia: electrical insulators; not resistor bars. Graphite: viable in inert/reducing atmospheres, but not the generic “resistor bars” choice in air-fired kilns. Silicon nitride: generally insulating/semiconducting; not standard resistor bar material. Common Pitfalls: Assuming all refractories can serve as heaters; overlooking oxidation of graphite in air. Final Answer: Silicon carbide

Question 10

Fireclay refractories: the approximate maximum safe working temperature (continuous service) for standard fireclay bricks is about how many degrees Celsius?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Fireclay bricks are alumino-silicate refractories widely used for furnace walls, flues, and general linings. While laboratory refractoriness (softening under load or pyrometric cone equivalent) can indicate high temperatures, practical “maximum safe working temperature” for continuous service is lower and reflects creep, load, and atmosphere effects. Given Data / Assumptions: Standard fireclay compositions (approx. 25–45% Al2O3, remainder SiO2). Continuous industrial service, not brief excursions. Moderate load and oxidizing/neutral atmospheres. Concept / Approach: Fireclay refractories soften gradually as glassy phases form and viscous flow increases. Although some grades may exhibit refractoriness up to around 1500 °C in short tests, continuous safe working limits are commonly placed nearer 1250–1350 °C for general-duty fireclays. Therefore, ~1300 °C is a widely taught rule-of-thumb for maximum safe working temperature under typical conditions. Step-by-Step Solution: Distinguish “refractoriness” from “safe working temperature.”Account for load/creep that lowers usable service temperature.Select 1300 °C as the practical upper bound for standard fireclay bricks. Verification / Alternative check: Vendor datasheets and handbooks list service limits near 1200–1350 °C for common fireclay grades, with super-duty/high-alumina bricks covering higher ranges. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 1150: conservative for many standard fireclays. 1450/1550/1750: exceed continuous-service capability of typical fireclay; those ranges require high-alumina, silica, or other advanced refractories. Common Pitfalls: Confusing cone numbers with continuous service; ignoring load and atmosphere effects on creep. Final Answer: 1300

Question 11

Dolomite refractory practice: for tar-bonded dolomite bricks, which statements regarding storage, application, and hydration resistance are accurate?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Dolomite bricks (CaO·MgO based) are basic refractories used in steelmaking. Because CaO is highly reactive with moisture (forming Ca(OH)2), storage and bonding systems critically affect brick stability and lining performance. This question brings together three practical facts about tar-bonded dolomite bricks. Given Data / Assumptions: Tar-bonded dolomite has an organic binder that carbonizes upon firing/initial service. LD converters (basic oxygen furnaces) require basic linings. Hydration resistance varies with bonding/binder type and processing. Concept / Approach: Unprotected dolomite hydrates readily, cracking and losing strength. Hence, storage must be dry and temperature-controlled to minimize moisture pickup. Tar-bonded bricks are traditionally used in steel converters, often as safety/working linings in specific zones. Compared to pitch-bonded products, tar-bonded formulations generally show poorer hydration resistance, motivating strict storage and handling protocols. Step-by-Step Solution: Check storage: controlled T/RH is mandatory—true.Check application: LD converters utilize basic linings including dolomite—true.Check hydration resistance: tar-bonded typically inferior to pitch-bonded—true.Therefore, all three statements are correct. Verification / Alternative check: Steel plant practices specify dry rooms or sealed packaging for dolomite bricks and note differences in hydration resistance among binder systems. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Only (a) and (b)” omits the well-known hydration point in (c). Common Pitfalls: Underestimating moisture sensitivity of CaO-bearing refractories; mixing up tar-bonded with pitch-bonded properties. Final Answer: All (a), (b) and (c)

Question 12

Effect of bulk density: compared to lower-density products, high-density refractory bricks generally exhibit lower values of which service property?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Refractory selection involves trade-offs among density, strength, conductivity, and thermal-shock behavior. High bulk density typically improves strength and reduces open porosity, but it can impair resistance to thermal shock (spalling) because thermal stresses rise with higher elastic modulus and expansion acting over lower compliance. Given Data / Assumptions: Comparing bricks within a similar composition family. Service involves thermal cycling or temperature gradients. All other factors equal (microstructure aside). Concept / Approach: Thermal-shock resistance tends to improve with lower modulus, higher porosity (to blunt crack tips), and lower thermal expansion; higher density often means fewer pores and higher stiffness, which elevates thermal stresses for a given temperature swing, leading to lower spalling resistance. Conversely, high density often boosts slag resistance and strength by reducing permeability. Step-by-Step Solution: Link density ↑ → porosity ↓ and modulus ↑.Higher modulus + similar expansion → larger thermal stresses.Hence thermal-shock/spalling resistance generally ↓.Select “Spalling resistance” as the property that tends to be lower. Verification / Alternative check: Design charts relating thermal-shock parameter (R or R′) to modulus/strength/conductivity show why denser, stiffer products often fare worse in rapid cycling. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Thermal conductivity: often increases with density (not lower). Fusion point: mostly composition-controlled. Slag penetration resistance: typically improves with density/low porosity. Hot strength: denser products often stronger. Common Pitfalls: Assuming “denser is always better”—it depends on the failure mode; for thermal shock, compliance helps. Final Answer: Spalling resistance (thermal-shock resistance)

Question 13

Periclase refractories: the principal constituent oxide in periclase-based bricks is which of the following?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Periclase is the mineral form of magnesium oxide and gives its name to MgO-based refractory bricks. These basic refractories are vital in metallurgical vessels exposed to basic slags, where chemical compatibility controls lining life. Given Data / Assumptions: Periclase refers specifically to crystalline MgO. Common applications include steelmaking furnaces and cement kilns. Concept / Approach: Refractory nomenclature often maps directly to the dominant phase: “periclase” → MgO; “corundum” → Al2O3; “silica” → SiO2; “zirconia” → ZrO2. Recognizing these links helps quickly identify chemical compatibility with slags and atmospheres. Step-by-Step Solution: Note that periclase is MgO.Therefore, periclase refractories are primarily MgO-based.Select MgO. Verification / Alternative check: Phase diagrams and refractory catalogs list periclase bricks as MgO-rich, often with spinel (MgAl2O4) additions for improved thermal shock. Why Other Options Are Wrong: CaO: lime; relevant for doloma but not periclase. Al2O3/SiO2/ZrO2: define other refractory families. Common Pitfalls: Confusing periclase (MgO) with doloma (CaO·MgO) or magnesia-chrome compositions. Final Answer: MgO

Question 14

Carbon refractories: which statement about carbon (graphite) refractory blocks is correct in typical ironmaking service?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Carbon and graphite refractories have unique properties: very high thermal conductivity, excellent thermal-shock resistance, and chemical inertness in reducing atmospheres. They are widely used in areas like blast-furnace hearths where erosion by hot metal occurs and resistance to wetting by iron is beneficial. Given Data / Assumptions: Molten iron contact, high temperatures, reducing conditions in the hearth. Carbon blocks may be impregnated (e.g., with pitch) to reduce permeability. Acid/base classification in refractories refers to oxide chemistry, which does not directly apply to carbon. Concept / Approach: Molten iron does not readily wet graphite; this helps minimize metal penetration. Carbon refractories are often termed “neutral” because they are not oxides and do not fit classical acid/base slag classifications. Their excellent thermal-shock resistance and high conductivity make them ideal for hearths where thermal gradients and metal contact are severe. Step-by-Step Solution: Evaluate wetting: graphite is generally non-wetted by molten iron—so (a) is false.Assess application: carbon blocks line blast-furnace hearths—(b) is true.Check acidity: carbon is not an acidic oxide refractory—(c) is false.Hence, only statement (b) is correct. Verification / Alternative check: Ironmaking texts specify carbon/graphite hearth linings to reduce hot-metal/slag attack and enhance campaign life, confirming (b). Why Other Options Are Wrong: (a) Opposite of practice; non-wetting is a key advantage. (c) Misclassification; carbon is considered neutral. (d) Aggregates false statements. (e) Describes basic CaO-based refractories, not carbon blocks. Common Pitfalls: Applying oxide acidity/basicity labels to carbon; assuming metals always wet carbon surfaces. Final Answer: They are used in the hearth of blast furnaces

Question 15

Acidic refractory behavior: adding basic oxides to an acidic refractory generally has what effect on its fusion point (softening temperature)?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Refractory selection involves matching slag chemistry to lining chemistry. Mixing unlike chemistries (acid with basic) tends to form low-melting reaction products or eutectics, which depress the overall softening temperature and promote corrosion or deformation at service temperatures. Given Data / Assumptions: “Acidic” refractory refers to SiO2-rich or other acid oxides. Basic oxides include CaO, MgO, etc. Fusion point relates to softening/pyrometric cone behavior. Concept / Approach: Opposite acid–base oxide interactions commonly produce compounds with melting points lower than either parent, resulting in eutectic mixtures. This is the basis for chemical corrosion of refractories by incompatible slags. Therefore, adding basic oxides to an acidic refractory typically reduces the fusion point and undermines high-temperature stability. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify acid vs basic oxide sets.Recall eutectic formation lowers melting/softening temperatures.Therefore, fusion point decreases upon such additions. Verification / Alternative check: Phase diagrams (e.g., CaO–SiO2) show deep eutectics; practical linings fail where incompatible slags form low-melting phases at hot faces. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Increase/no effect: contradict typical eutectic behavior. “Always above 2500 °C”: unrealistic generalization. “Neutral without change”: chemistry does not cancel without creating new phases. Common Pitfalls: Assuming mixing refractories averages properties; in reality, deleterious low-melting phases often form. Final Answer: Reduces the fusion point

Question 16

Forming pressure: machine moulding (dry pressing) of a dry refractory mix typically requires compaction pressures of the order of how many kg/cm²?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Dry pressing is a common forming method for refractories and ceramics where little or no water is added. Achieving sufficient green density and strength demands very high uniaxial compaction pressures, especially with fine powders and minimal plasticizers. Given Data / Assumptions: Dry, granular/powder mix with minimal moisture. Uniaxial or isostatic pressing context in refractory manufacture. Typical industrial equipment capabilities. Concept / Approach: Green density scales with applied pressure, particle size distribution, and binder content. For dry pressing, pressures are often in the range of hundreds to over a thousand kg/cm² to achieve target densities before firing. In many textbook and exam references, “of the order of 1000 kg/cm²” is quoted for machine moulding of dry refractory mixes. Step-by-Step Solution: Recall standard pressure ranges for dry pressing: high hundreds to ~1000+ kg/cm².Select the closest order-of-magnitude figure among the options.Choose 1000 kg/cm² as the representative pressure. Verification / Alternative check: Process handbooks cite pressures from 700 to 1500 kg/cm² for dense shapes and tiles; isostatic pressing can achieve even higher equivalent compaction. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 10 or 100: far too low for dry pressed refractories. 500: sometimes used, but the commonly taught representative “order of” value is ~1000. 2500: above typical machine-moulding norms and closer to specialized isostatic/ultra-high-pressure methods. Common Pitfalls: Confusing wet (plastic) forming pressures with dry pressing; underestimating pressure needed for low-moisture compaction. Final Answer: 1000

Question 17

Strength of refractories: cold crushing strength (CCS) of a fired refractory is influenced primarily by which factors?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Cold crushing strength (CCS) is a simple but important indicator of a refractory’s ability to withstand handling, installation loads, and some service stresses at room temperature. Understanding what governs CCS helps in tailoring compositions and firing cycles for target performance. Given Data / Assumptions: Fired refractory shapes under ambient testing conditions. Microstructure includes porosity, grain size, and bond phase distribution. Firing schedules influence sintering and phase development. Concept / Approach: CCS increases with effective particle packing and strong bonds among grains. Composition controls potential bonding phases and thermal transformation behavior; texture governs crack initiation/propagation paths; firing temperature/time determine sintering extent and glass/crystalline phase formation. All three—composition, texture, and firing—therefore contribute substantially to CCS. Step-by-Step Solution: Relate composition to phase assemblage and bonding (e.g., mullite formation in alumino-silicates).Link texture (porosity distribution, grain bonding) to load-bearing cross-section.Connect firing schedule to densification and microstructure development.Conclude that CCS depends on (a), (b), and (c). Verification / Alternative check: Experimental data show CCS rises with optimized particle packing and adequate sintering; overfiring may embrittle or cause undesirable glassy phases affecting toughness despite high CCS. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Single-factor claims ignore the multivariate nature of ceramic strength. “Only density” neglects pore morphology and bonding quality, both critical to CCS. Common Pitfalls: Equating high density with high strength regardless of microstructural defects; overlooking the role of controlled firing ramps/soaks in developing optimal bonds. Final Answer: All (a), (b) and (c)

Question 18

Safe storage of refractories: which refractory product specifically requires a controlled atmosphere (both temperature and humidity) during storage to prevent hydration and deterioration before use?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Refractory materials often contain phases that react unfavorably with atmospheric moisture and carbon dioxide during storage. Some products, especially basic refractories containing free CaO/MgO or special binders, can hydrate, swell, crack, or otherwise degrade if not stored correctly. This question tests recognition of the refractory type that must be stored under controlled temperature and humidity to ensure performance at installation. Given Data / Assumptions: Choices include acidic (fireclay), high-alumina (mullite), and basic refractories (magnesite, dolomite). “Controlled atmosphere” implies dry, temperature-stable, and usually covered or sealed storage. Primary degradation mechanisms are hydration and oxidation of binders. Concept / Approach: Tar-bonded dolomite bricks contain doloma (CaO·MgO) with a tar/pitch binder. Free lime (CaO) and periclase (MgO) are highly reactive to moisture and carbon dioxide (forming hydroxides and carbonates), leading to disruptive volume changes. The tar binder can oxidize if stored hot or in poorly ventilated, humid conditions. Hence, these bricks require strictly controlled storage. By contrast, fireclay and mullite bricks are comparatively stable in ambient conditions, while magnesite bricks also require dry storage but are generally less sensitive than tar-bonded dolomite to humidity and binder oxidation issues. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify basic bricks prone to hydration: dolomite (CaO·MgO) and magnesite (MgO).Note binder sensitivity: tar-bonded systems are additionally vulnerable to oxidation and moisture ingress.Infer highest storage sensitivity: tar-bonded dolomite demands controlled humidity and temperature.Select the option that aligns with these risks. Verification / Alternative check: Field guidance for steel plants and refractory vendors specifies sealed packaging, desiccants, and temperature limits for tar-bonded dolomite bricks to prevent pre-hydration and loss of strength prior to ramming or laying. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Fireclay bricks: relatively inert to ambient humidity; standard dry storage suffices.Mullite bricks: chemically stable alumina–silicate; do not require controlled humidity.Magnesite bricks: need dry storage, but tar-bonded dolomite is more critically sensitive.High-alumina castables: supplied sealed; while moisture control matters, they do not mandate controlled atmosphere like tar-bonded dolomite bricks. Common Pitfalls: Assuming all basic bricks need identical storage care; tar-bonded dolomite is the most sensitive.Confusing transport waterproofing with genuine humidity and temperature control. Final Answer: Tar-bonded dolomite bricks

Question 19

Refractory classification: which of the following is a basic refractory material suitable for service with basic slags?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Refractories are commonly categorized as acidic, basic, or neutral according to their chemical behavior with slags and atmospheres. Correct identification is essential when lining furnaces, ladles, and converters to minimize chemical attack and extend lining life. This question asks for the basic refractory among common options. Given Data / Assumptions: Acidic refractories: silica and fireclay (alumino–silicate family). Basic refractories: magnesia, doloma, and chrome–magnesite compositions. Neutral refractories: alumina, chromite, graphite, silicon carbide (context dependent). Concept / Approach: Chrome–magnesite refractories incorporate magnesia (MgO) with chromite/spinel phases, providing strong resistance against basic slags rich in CaO and FeO. Fireclay (alumino–silicate) and silica are attacked by basic slags and thus are classified as acidic. The correct selection for a basic refractory is chrome magnesite. Step-by-Step Solution: Review each candidate’s primary chemistry.Match chemistry with slag compatibility (basic vs. acidic).Identify chrome magnesite as the basic refractory.Confirm others are not basic. Verification / Alternative check: Steelmaking handbooks and supplier datasheets list chrome–magnesite bricks specifically for basic oxygen furnaces and other basic environments, validating the classification. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Fireclay: alumino–silicate, acidic behavior.Silica: strongly acidic; unsuitable with basic slags.None of these: incorrect because chrome magnesite is a standard basic refractory.High-alumina: often treated as neutral, not basic. Common Pitfalls: Confusing chromite (neutral) with chrome–magnesite (basic due to MgO).Assuming “high-alumina” implies basicity; it does not. Final Answer: Chrome magnesite

Question 20

Industrial applications of silicon carbide (SiC) refractories: in which of the following are SiC refractories commonly employed?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Silicon carbide (SiC) refractories are valued for their high thermal conductivity, excellent thermal-shock resistance, good abrasion resistance, and strong mechanical strength at elevated temperatures. Because of this unique property set, they are chosen in furnace components that must transfer heat efficiently, withstand cycling, and resist corrosive environments. The question checks familiarity with typical end uses. Given Data / Assumptions: Applications include muffles, non-ferrous smelting gear, and recuperators. SiC may be reaction-bonded, nitride-bonded, or recrystallized; all retain high conductivity. Service involves high temperature and/or rapid heating–cooling cycles. Concept / Approach: Muffle furnaces benefit from SiC’s high thermal conductivity for rapid, uniform heat transfer to the charge through the muffle wall. Zinc smelting furnaces face corrosive vapors and high temperatures where SiC’s corrosion and thermal-shock resistances pay off. Ceramic recuperators require robust heat-exchange surfaces resistant to thermal gradients—again a natural fit for SiC. Therefore, all listed applications are legitimate uses. Step-by-Step Solution: Evaluate muffle service: needs high k and thermal-shock resistance → SiC suitable.Evaluate zinc smelting: corrosive, hot environment → SiC durable.Evaluate recuperators: heat-exchange efficiency and cycling → SiC excels.Conclude: all three are correct. Verification / Alternative check: Product catalogs and plant case studies document SiC muffles, SiC lining blocks in non-ferrous furnaces, and SiC-based heat-exchanger elements for energy recovery. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Individual picks (a), (b), or (c) alone understate SiC’s broad applicability.“None of the above” contradicts widespread industrial practice. Common Pitfalls: Assuming all ceramics are thermal insulators; SiC is notably conductive.Overlooking chemical corrosion factors in non-ferrous operations. Final Answer: All of (a), (b), and (c)

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