Q: Heat exchangers: for a multi-pass shell-and-tube exchanger, which statement about the log mean temperature difference (LMTD) is correct?

Introduction / Context: The log mean temperature difference (LMTD) is the effective driving force for heat transfer in exchangers. Its value, when compared to common mathematical means, follows useful inequalities that help sanity-check calculations, especially for multi-pass shell-and-tube configurations. Given Data / Assumptions: Two terminal temperature differences exist: ΔT1 and ΔT2, both positive. LMTD is defined as (ΔT1 − ΔT2) / ln(ΔT1/ΔT2). Arithmetic mean (AM) = (ΔT1 + ΔT2)/2; Geometric mean (GM) = sqrt(ΔT1 * ΔT2). Concept / Approach: Mathematical inequalities for positive numbers state: GM ≤ AM. For distinct ΔT1 and ΔT2, the logarithmic mean lies between the geometric and arithmetic means: GM ≤ LMTD ≤ AM, with strict inequalities when ΔT1 ≠ ΔT2. This remains valid for single- or multi-pass designs; multi-pass influences the correction factor but not these ordering properties. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Start with ΔT1 > 0 and ΔT2 > 0.2) For unequal terminal differences, GM < LMTD < AM.3) Therefore, the correct comparative statement is “LMTD is less than AM and greater than GM”. Verification / Alternative check: Evaluate a numerical example: let ΔT1 = 30, ΔT2 = 10. AM = 20, GM ≈ 17.32, LMTD = (20)/ln(3) ≈ 18.19, confirming GM < LMTD < AM. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Greater than both means: violates inequalities. Less than both: contradicts definitions. Equals AM or equals GM: equality holds only when ΔT1 = ΔT2 (degenerate case), not generally. Common Pitfalls: Forgetting to use a correction factor for multi-pass arrangements; mixing up the ordering of means; using negative or zero terminal differences. Final Answer: LMTD is less than the arithmetic mean and greater than the geometric mean.

Q: Dished heads: for better strength, the knuckle radius of a torispherical head should meet a minimum. The provided knuckle radius should be not less than which criterion?

Introduction / Context: Torispherical (dished) heads have a crown with a toroidal knuckle that blends into the shell. The knuckle radius strongly influences stress concentration at the junction; larger radii generally reduce peak stresses and improve fatigue and buckling resistance. Given Data / Assumptions: Geometric parameters: inside diameter D, thickness t. We consider common code practice for minimum knuckle radius. Goal: avoid excessive stress concentration at the knuckle. Concept / Approach: Design rules typically require the knuckle radius r to be at least a certain fraction of diameter and also a multiple of thickness. Using a “whichever is larger” rule ensures sufficient radius across sizes and thicknesses, preventing an undersized radius in thick or large heads. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Two minima are considered: r ≥ 0.06D and r ≥ 3t.2) To be safe for both large and thick heads, take the larger of the two minima.3) Therefore, r should be not less than either (a) or (b), whichever is larger. Verification / Alternative check: This rule matches common design handbooks and reduces local membrane and bending stresses in the knuckle region compared with smaller radii. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 6% of I.D. or 3t alone: may be non-conservative for certain sizes. Whichever is smaller: unsafe because it can permit too tight a radius. Fixed value: does not scale with geometry. Common Pitfalls: Misreading “less than” vs “not less than”; ignoring the thickness criterion for small-diameter but thick heads. Final Answer: Either (a) or (b), whichever is larger

Q: In plate-and-frame filter presses used in chemical/process engineering, the frame thickness is normally within the following range (inches):

Introduction / Context: Plate-and-frame filter presses are widely used for slurry dewatering in pharmaceuticals, food processing, minerals, and fine chemicals. A critical geometric parameter is the frame thickness, which sets the cake chamber depth and directly impacts cycle time, cake volume, and filtration performance. Given Data / Assumptions: Conventional plate-and-frame press operating under moderate pressures. Standard industrial practice ranges are being referenced (not special high-thickness custom frames). Units required in inches. Concept / Approach: Typical commercial ranges for frame thickness are about 1.5–4 inches for general-purpose operations. Thinner frames yield thin cakes and more frequent cycles; thicker frames are used for slurries that form porous cakes or when higher solids per cycle are desired. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the typical industry range for frame thickness.Common literature and vendor data place this near 1.5–4 inches.Match to the closest option provided.Option “1.5 to 4” exactly matches the standard range. Verification / Alternative check: Look at catalog specifications of mainstream OEMs: standard frames cluster around 38–100 mm (≈1.5–4 in), confirming the selection. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 0.25 to 4: Lower bound too small for practical chambers. 0.25 to 8: Both bounds unrealistic for typical general-duty presses. 1 to 5: Plausible but broader than standard; upper bound often not “normal.” 1 to 12: Much too broad; 12 in is atypical for standard frames. Common Pitfalls: Confusing plate thickness with frame thickness; assuming extremely thick frames are “normal” rather than special-purpose designs. Final Answer: 1.5 to 4

Q: Shell-and-tube exchanger with square tube pitch: the shell-side equivalent (hydraulic) diameter De for crossflow is given by (P = pitch, d = tube outside diameter):

Introduction / Context: On the shell side of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger, fluid weaves through the tube bundle and baffle windows. For pressure drop and heat-transfer estimation, engineers use an equivalent or hydraulic diameter that reflects the characteristic length scale of flow passages formed by tube pitch and tube diameter. Given Data / Assumptions: Square tube pitch with pitch P (center-to-center spacing). Tubes of outside diameter d. Crossflow passages dominate between baffles. Small leakage/bypass neglected in the geometric definition. Concept / Approach: The equivalent (hydraulic) diameter is defined as De = 4 * (flow area) / (wetted perimeter). For a square pitch array, the net flow area per tube cell is P^2 - (π d^2)/4. The wetted perimeter per cell against which fluid shears is approximately π d. Substituting these into the definition gives a compact expression for De. Step-by-Step Solution: Compute net flow area per tube cell: A = P^2 - (π d^2)/4.Compute wetted perimeter per cell: Pw = π d.Hydraulic diameter: De = 4 * A / Pw.Therefore, De = 4 * (P^2 - (π d^2)/4) / (π d). Verification / Alternative check: Numerically, 4/π ≈ 1.273 and (π/4) ≈ 0.785, so an equivalent form is De ≈ 1.27 * (P^2 - 0.785 d^2) / d. Both are algebraically identical, confirming correctness. Why Other Options Are Wrong: (P^2 - (π d^2)/4)/d: Missing the factor 4/π; underestimates the true De. 4 * (P^2 - 0.86 d^2)/(π d): Uses an incorrect geometric constant (0.86 vs 0.785). (π d)/(4 P^2): Inverts dependencies; not derived from hydraulic diameter definition. 0.9 * (P^2 - (π d^2)/4)/d: Arbitrary coefficient; not geometry-based. Common Pitfalls: Mixing triangular and square pitch constants; forgetting that flow area excludes the tube's circular cross-section area; confusing shell-side De with tube-side diameter. Final Answer: De = 4 * (P^2 - (π * d^2)/4) / (π * d)

Q: In liquid–solid filtration, which factors affect the filtration rate under constant-pressure operation?

Introduction / Context: Filtration rate quantifies how quickly liquid passes through a filter medium while solids are retained as a cake. In chemical and environmental engineering, understanding rate control helps select equipment size, cycle times, and operating pressures. Given Data / Assumptions: Constant-pressure filtration of a compressible or incompressible cake. Newtonian filtrate; steady operating conditions during a given cycle segment. Uniform medium with known clean-medium resistance. Concept / Approach: The classical filtration equation relates filtrate volume to time considering pressure drop, viscosity, cake resistance (which grows with cake thickness), and medium resistance. Larger area reduces superficial velocity for a given flow, improving throughput or lowering pressure drop. Step-by-Step Solution: Rate ∝ ΔP / (μ * (R_cake + R_medium)) for a given area.Increasing ΔP increases rate, within mechanical limits.Higher viscosity μ reduces rate.Greater area increases capacity at fixed flux.Cake resistance grows with time as solids accumulate. Verification / Alternative check: Plot filtrate volume vs time; the slope decreases as cake builds, demonstrating dependence on R_cake and μ at fixed ΔP and area. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Only pressure drop: ignores viscosity and resistances. Only cake or only medium resistance: incomplete. Only area/viscosity: incomplete without ΔP and resistances. Only cake at early times: early-time dynamics still include medium resistance and viscosity. Common Pitfalls: Neglecting medium resistance at the start; assuming unlimited benefit from increasing pressure without considering cake compressibility. Final Answer: All of the above (a, b, and c)

Q: Which heat exchanger type is commonly referred to as a “hairpin” exchanger in process industries?

Introduction / Context: Heat exchanger nomenclature often reflects construction. The “hairpin” exchanger name arises from its characteristic U-shaped, two-pipe assembly frequently used for compact duties and high-pressure services. Given Data / Assumptions: Standard industrial designs and terminology. Focus on common, widely accepted names. Concept / Approach: A double-pipe exchanger consists of one pipe inside another, with the flow often arranged to loop back in a U-bend, forming a hairpin-like geometry. This design allows ease of maintenance and modularity for small duties. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify which construction naturally forms a hairpin loop.Double-pipe with U-bend matches the description.Other listed designs do not inherently resemble a hairpin in standard form. Verification / Alternative check: Vendor catalogs and textbooks routinely label U-bend double-pipe units as hairpin exchangers. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Finned: Refers to extended surfaces, not the overall geometry. Plate-type: Stack of plates; no hairpin shape. Regenerative: Stores heat alternately; construction differs. Scraped-surface: Agitated surface for viscous fluids; geometry not hairpin. Common Pitfalls: Confusing hairpin with U-tube bundles in shell-and-tube exchangers; the term “hairpin” conventionally maps to double-pipe modules. Final Answer: Double-pipe exchanger

Q: For selecting an optimum economic pipe diameter for fluid transport, the governing criterion is based on:

Introduction / Context: Pipeline sizing in process and water industries balances capital and operating expenses. A larger pipe reduces velocity and frictional head (lower pumping power) but raises capital cost; a smaller pipe does the opposite. The “economic diameter” minimizes the sum of these costs over the project horizon. Given Data / Assumptions: Steady, single-phase flow in a long pipeline. Costs annualized to combine capital and operating burdens. Pump and electricity costs scale with frictional head loss and flow rate. Concept / Approach: The optimum diameter occurs where marginal savings in pumping cost due to a small diameter increase equals the marginal increase in capital (pipe) cost. This is a total-cost minimization problem, not a single-parameter optimization in viscosity or density alone. Step-by-Step Solution: Express total annual cost: C_total = C_capital(D) + C_pumping(D).Relate head loss to diameter (e.g., Darcy–Weisbach): h_f ∝ (L/D) * f * (v^2/2g); v ∝ 1/D^2.Operating cost ∝ power ∝ Q * ΔP ∝ Q * h_f.Find D that minimizes C_total by setting dC_total/dD = 0. Verification / Alternative check: Empirical charts (e.g., economic velocity charts) embed the same trade-off and lead to comparable selections when local energy prices and material costs are applied. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Viscosity or density alone cannot capture capital–operating trade-offs. Ignoring both costs defeats the purpose of “economic” sizing. Maximizing Reynolds number is not an economic objective. Common Pitfalls: Using only minimum first cost; ignoring pump power and energy tariffs; neglecting time value of money in long-life pipelines. Final Answer: Total cost (pumping/operating cost + fixed/pipe cost)

Q: Shell-and-tube heat exchanger practices: pick out the statement that is WRONG.

Introduction / Context: Shell-and-tube exchangers must be mechanically supported and internally baffled to achieve target heat-transfer coefficients while limiting bypass and vibration. Understanding correct mechanical practices is critical for safe installation and operation. Given Data / Assumptions: Conventional horizontal shell-and-tube exchanger with removable tube bundle. Standard baffle-and-tie-rod construction as found in industry. Focus is on correctness of statements about supports and baffles. Concept / Approach: Horizontal vessels are normally mounted on saddle supports, not brackets. Vertical vessels frequently use brackets or lugs welded to the shell for support at structural beams. Baffles are carried on tie rods with spacers and must fit closely to limit shell-side bypass while still allowing assembly/removal. Step-by-Step Solution: Evaluate each statement against standard practice.(a) Minimal but adequate clearances: correct.(b) Tie rods and spacers support/locate baffles: correct.(c) Details vary by design; multiple tie rods of adequate diameter are used—practice is plausible.(d) Reversed support types for orientations—this is wrong; horizontal shells use saddles.(e) Purpose of baffles stated correctly. Verification / Alternative check: Manufacturer drawings and standards (e.g., TEMA practices) show horizontal shells on saddles; vertical units often on brackets/lugs or skirts (for towers). Why Other Options Are Wrong: (a) Accurate; excessive clearance causes bypass. (b) Accurate; baffles are not supported by tubes themselves. (c) Acceptable practice; the essence (use of multiple tie rods) holds. (e) Accurate description of baffle function. Common Pitfalls: Assuming identical supports for all orientations; ignoring maintenance needs when setting clearances. Final Answer: Bracket supports are used for a horizontal shell, while saddle supports are used for a vertical shell.

Question 1

Vessel supports: a vertical storage vessel is never supported by which type of support?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Mechanical design of pressure and storage vessels uses standard support types selected primarily by vessel orientation and geometry. Correct support selection ensures stability, manageable stresses, and safe load transfer to foundations. Given Data / Assumptions: Vessel orientation: vertical storage vessel (cylindrical). Conventional support options: skirt, lugs/legs, brackets, saddles. Concept / Approach: Saddle supports are specifically intended for horizontal cylindrical vessels to cradle the shell and distribute loads. Vertical vessels commonly use a skirt (for large/heavy vessels) or lugs/legs/brackets (for smaller vessels) to carry weight and lateral loads (wind, seismic). Hence, “saddle support” is not used for vertical vessels. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Identify vessel orientation: vertical.2) List feasible supports: skirt, lugs/legs, brackets.3) Recognize that “saddle” is a horizontal-vessel support geometry.4) Therefore, a vertical vessel is never supported by a saddle. Verification / Alternative check: Standard references and codes consistently depict vertical vessels with skirts or legs/lugs and horizontal vessels with two saddles. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Bracket, lug, legs with baseplate: used for smaller vertical vessels. Skirt: the most common for tall/heavy vertical vessels; resists wind/seismic moments. Common Pitfalls: Assuming a single universal support; ignoring overturning moments from wind or seismic that often dictate the need for a skirt. Final Answer: Saddle support

Question 2

Power required for agitation depends upon the

Accepted Answer

all (a), (b) and (c).

Question 3

Support design: when can wind load be neglected for process vessels and tanks?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: External loads on vessels include wind and seismic forces. Designers determine when these actions are governing, negligible, or must be combined with operating loads. This question checks the practical case where wind loading can be ignored. Given Data / Assumptions: Wind acts as a lateral pressure on exposed surfaces. Indoor, low-height equipment is largely shielded from wind. “Tall” vessels present large projected areas and higher overturning moments. Concept / Approach: Wind loads are typically considered for outdoor equipment with substantial height or area because they create significant shear and overturning moments. If a vessel is short and located indoors, the envelope of the building shields the vessel, allowing wind to be neglected in design load combinations. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Evaluate exposure: indoors vs outdoors.2) Evaluate geometry: short vs tall aspect ratios.3) If short and indoor, lateral wind load is effectively negligible.4) Therefore, option “short (< 2 m) and housed indoor” is correct. Verification / Alternative check: Design codes and recommended practices emphasize exposure category and height. Indoor short vessels normally consider only dead load, operating load, and possibly seismic if required. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Tall and full or tall but empty: tall geometry always demands wind checks. Outdoors but sheltered: still exposed; wind generally cannot be ignored. None of these: incorrect since the indoor short case exists. Common Pitfalls: Neglecting wind on outdoor equipment; assuming shielding without proof; forgetting that even indoor equipment might need seismic checks depending on location. Final Answer: When the vessel is short (less than 2 m) and installed indoors

Question 4

Heat exchangers: for a multi-pass shell-and-tube exchanger, which statement about the log mean temperature difference (LMTD) is correct?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: The log mean temperature difference (LMTD) is the effective driving force for heat transfer in exchangers. Its value, when compared to common mathematical means, follows useful inequalities that help sanity-check calculations, especially for multi-pass shell-and-tube configurations. Given Data / Assumptions: Two terminal temperature differences exist: ΔT1 and ΔT2, both positive. LMTD is defined as (ΔT1 − ΔT2) / ln(ΔT1/ΔT2). Arithmetic mean (AM) = (ΔT1 + ΔT2)/2; Geometric mean (GM) = sqrt(ΔT1 * ΔT2). Concept / Approach: Mathematical inequalities for positive numbers state: GM ≤ AM. For distinct ΔT1 and ΔT2, the logarithmic mean lies between the geometric and arithmetic means: GM ≤ LMTD ≤ AM, with strict inequalities when ΔT1 ≠ ΔT2. This remains valid for single- or multi-pass designs; multi-pass influences the correction factor but not these ordering properties. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Start with ΔT1 > 0 and ΔT2 > 0.2) For unequal terminal differences, GM < LMTD < AM.3) Therefore, the correct comparative statement is “LMTD is less than AM and greater than GM”. Verification / Alternative check: Evaluate a numerical example: let ΔT1 = 30, ΔT2 = 10. AM = 20, GM ≈ 17.32, LMTD = (20)/ln(3) ≈ 18.19, confirming GM < LMTD < AM. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Greater than both means: violates inequalities. Less than both: contradicts definitions. Equals AM or equals GM: equality holds only when ΔT1 = ΔT2 (degenerate case), not generally. Common Pitfalls: Forgetting to use a correction factor for multi-pass arrangements; mixing up the ordering of means; using negative or zero terminal differences. Final Answer: LMTD is less than the arithmetic mean and greater than the geometric mean.

Question 5

Dished heads: for better strength, the knuckle radius of a torispherical head should meet a minimum. The provided knuckle radius should be not less than which criterion?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Torispherical (dished) heads have a crown with a toroidal knuckle that blends into the shell. The knuckle radius strongly influences stress concentration at the junction; larger radii generally reduce peak stresses and improve fatigue and buckling resistance. Given Data / Assumptions: Geometric parameters: inside diameter D, thickness t. We consider common code practice for minimum knuckle radius. Goal: avoid excessive stress concentration at the knuckle. Concept / Approach: Design rules typically require the knuckle radius r to be at least a certain fraction of diameter and also a multiple of thickness. Using a “whichever is larger” rule ensures sufficient radius across sizes and thicknesses, preventing an undersized radius in thick or large heads. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Two minima are considered: r ≥ 0.06D and r ≥ 3t.2) To be safe for both large and thick heads, take the larger of the two minima.3) Therefore, r should be not less than either (a) or (b), whichever is larger. Verification / Alternative check: This rule matches common design handbooks and reduces local membrane and bending stresses in the knuckle region compared with smaller radii. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 6% of I.D. or 3t alone: may be non-conservative for certain sizes. Whichever is smaller: unsafe because it can permit too tight a radius. Fixed value: does not scale with geometry. Common Pitfalls: Misreading “less than” vs “not less than”; ignoring the thickness criterion for small-diameter but thick heads. Final Answer: Either (a) or (b), whichever is larger

Question 6

In solid mechanics, the ratio of lateral strain to linear (longitudinal) strain is termed as:

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: In mechanics of materials, small deformations are described using strain components. When a bar is pulled in tension, it elongates in the loading direction and contracts laterally. The proportional relationship between these orthogonal strains defines an important elastic constant used across civil, mechanical, and materials engineering. Given Data / Assumptions: Material is homogeneous, isotropic, and linearly elastic within the small-strain range. Lateral strain refers to strain normal to the loading axis; linear (longitudinal) strain is along the loading axis. Sign convention: lateral strain is typically negative in tension; the ratio is often reported as a positive magnitude. Concept / Approach: The constant that relates lateral strain (epsilon_lateral) to longitudinal strain (epsilon_longitudinal) is called Poisson's ratio, symbol ν (nu). By definition: ν = - (epsilon_lateral / epsilon_longitudinal). The minus sign makes ν positive for most materials under tension because lateral strain is negative while longitudinal strain is positive. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the property asked: ratio of lateral strain to linear strain.Recall the definition: ν = - (ε_lateral / ε_longitudinal).Match with option texts: the only named constant for this ratio is Poisson's ratio. Verification / Alternative check: Typical ν values: steel ≈ 0.3, concrete ≈ 0.15–0.2, rubber up to ≈ 0.49. These well-known ranges confirm this identification. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Bulk modulus: volumetric stress/volumetric strain, not lateral/longitudinal ratio. Modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus): normal stress/longitudinal strain. Shear modulus: shear stress/shear strain. Young's modulus (duplicate wording of modulus of elasticity): same as above. Common Pitfalls: Confusing ν with E (Young's modulus) because both are elastic constants; mixing the sign convention and forgetting the minus sign in the formal definition. Final Answer: Poisson's ratio

Question 7

In plate-and-frame filter presses used in chemical/process engineering, the frame thickness is normally within the following range (inches):

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Plate-and-frame filter presses are widely used for slurry dewatering in pharmaceuticals, food processing, minerals, and fine chemicals. A critical geometric parameter is the frame thickness, which sets the cake chamber depth and directly impacts cycle time, cake volume, and filtration performance. Given Data / Assumptions: Conventional plate-and-frame press operating under moderate pressures. Standard industrial practice ranges are being referenced (not special high-thickness custom frames). Units required in inches. Concept / Approach: Typical commercial ranges for frame thickness are about 1.5–4 inches for general-purpose operations. Thinner frames yield thin cakes and more frequent cycles; thicker frames are used for slurries that form porous cakes or when higher solids per cycle are desired. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the typical industry range for frame thickness.Common literature and vendor data place this near 1.5–4 inches.Match to the closest option provided.Option “1.5 to 4” exactly matches the standard range. Verification / Alternative check: Look at catalog specifications of mainstream OEMs: standard frames cluster around 38–100 mm (≈1.5–4 in), confirming the selection. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 0.25 to 4: Lower bound too small for practical chambers. 0.25 to 8: Both bounds unrealistic for typical general-duty presses. 1 to 5: Plausible but broader than standard; upper bound often not “normal.” 1 to 12: Much too broad; 12 in is atypical for standard frames. Common Pitfalls: Confusing plate thickness with frame thickness; assuming extremely thick frames are “normal” rather than special-purpose designs. Final Answer: 1.5 to 4

Question 8

Shell-and-tube exchanger with square tube pitch: the shell-side equivalent (hydraulic) diameter De for crossflow is given by (P = pitch, d = tube outside diameter):

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: On the shell side of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger, fluid weaves through the tube bundle and baffle windows. For pressure drop and heat-transfer estimation, engineers use an equivalent or hydraulic diameter that reflects the characteristic length scale of flow passages formed by tube pitch and tube diameter. Given Data / Assumptions: Square tube pitch with pitch P (center-to-center spacing). Tubes of outside diameter d. Crossflow passages dominate between baffles. Small leakage/bypass neglected in the geometric definition. Concept / Approach: The equivalent (hydraulic) diameter is defined as De = 4 * (flow area) / (wetted perimeter). For a square pitch array, the net flow area per tube cell is P^2 - (π d^2)/4. The wetted perimeter per cell against which fluid shears is approximately π d. Substituting these into the definition gives a compact expression for De. Step-by-Step Solution: Compute net flow area per tube cell: A = P^2 - (π d^2)/4.Compute wetted perimeter per cell: Pw = π d.Hydraulic diameter: De = 4 * A / Pw.Therefore, De = 4 * (P^2 - (π d^2)/4) / (π d). Verification / Alternative check: Numerically, 4/π ≈ 1.273 and (π/4) ≈ 0.785, so an equivalent form is De ≈ 1.27 * (P^2 - 0.785 d^2) / d. Both are algebraically identical, confirming correctness. Why Other Options Are Wrong: (P^2 - (π d^2)/4)/d: Missing the factor 4/π; underestimates the true De. 4 * (P^2 - 0.86 d^2)/(π d): Uses an incorrect geometric constant (0.86 vs 0.785). (π d)/(4 P^2): Inverts dependencies; not derived from hydraulic diameter definition. 0.9 * (P^2 - (π d^2)/4)/d: Arbitrary coefficient; not geometry-based. Common Pitfalls: Mixing triangular and square pitch constants; forgetting that flow area excludes the tube's circular cross-section area; confusing shell-side De with tube-side diameter. Final Answer: De = 4 * (P^2 - (π * d^2)/4) / (π * d)

Question 9

In liquid–solid filtration, which factors affect the filtration rate under constant-pressure operation?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Filtration rate quantifies how quickly liquid passes through a filter medium while solids are retained as a cake. In chemical and environmental engineering, understanding rate control helps select equipment size, cycle times, and operating pressures. Given Data / Assumptions: Constant-pressure filtration of a compressible or incompressible cake. Newtonian filtrate; steady operating conditions during a given cycle segment. Uniform medium with known clean-medium resistance. Concept / Approach: The classical filtration equation relates filtrate volume to time considering pressure drop, viscosity, cake resistance (which grows with cake thickness), and medium resistance. Larger area reduces superficial velocity for a given flow, improving throughput or lowering pressure drop. Step-by-Step Solution: Rate ∝ ΔP / (μ * (R_cake + R_medium)) for a given area.Increasing ΔP increases rate, within mechanical limits.Higher viscosity μ reduces rate.Greater area increases capacity at fixed flux.Cake resistance grows with time as solids accumulate. Verification / Alternative check: Plot filtrate volume vs time; the slope decreases as cake builds, demonstrating dependence on R_cake and μ at fixed ΔP and area. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Only pressure drop: ignores viscosity and resistances. Only cake or only medium resistance: incomplete. Only area/viscosity: incomplete without ΔP and resistances. Only cake at early times: early-time dynamics still include medium resistance and viscosity. Common Pitfalls: Neglecting medium resistance at the start; assuming unlimited benefit from increasing pressure without considering cake compressibility. Final Answer: All of the above (a, b, and c)

Question 10

Which heat exchanger type is commonly referred to as a “hairpin” exchanger in process industries?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Heat exchanger nomenclature often reflects construction. The “hairpin” exchanger name arises from its characteristic U-shaped, two-pipe assembly frequently used for compact duties and high-pressure services. Given Data / Assumptions: Standard industrial designs and terminology. Focus on common, widely accepted names. Concept / Approach: A double-pipe exchanger consists of one pipe inside another, with the flow often arranged to loop back in a U-bend, forming a hairpin-like geometry. This design allows ease of maintenance and modularity for small duties. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify which construction naturally forms a hairpin loop.Double-pipe with U-bend matches the description.Other listed designs do not inherently resemble a hairpin in standard form. Verification / Alternative check: Vendor catalogs and textbooks routinely label U-bend double-pipe units as hairpin exchangers. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Finned: Refers to extended surfaces, not the overall geometry. Plate-type: Stack of plates; no hairpin shape. Regenerative: Stores heat alternately; construction differs. Scraped-surface: Agitated surface for viscous fluids; geometry not hairpin. Common Pitfalls: Confusing hairpin with U-tube bundles in shell-and-tube exchangers; the term “hairpin” conventionally maps to double-pipe modules. Final Answer: Double-pipe exchanger

Question 11

For selecting an optimum economic pipe diameter for fluid transport, the governing criterion is based on:

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Pipeline sizing in process and water industries balances capital and operating expenses. A larger pipe reduces velocity and frictional head (lower pumping power) but raises capital cost; a smaller pipe does the opposite. The “economic diameter” minimizes the sum of these costs over the project horizon. Given Data / Assumptions: Steady, single-phase flow in a long pipeline. Costs annualized to combine capital and operating burdens. Pump and electricity costs scale with frictional head loss and flow rate. Concept / Approach: The optimum diameter occurs where marginal savings in pumping cost due to a small diameter increase equals the marginal increase in capital (pipe) cost. This is a total-cost minimization problem, not a single-parameter optimization in viscosity or density alone. Step-by-Step Solution: Express total annual cost: C_total = C_capital(D) + C_pumping(D).Relate head loss to diameter (e.g., Darcy–Weisbach): h_f ∝ (L/D) * f * (v^2/2g); v ∝ 1/D^2.Operating cost ∝ power ∝ Q * ΔP ∝ Q * h_f.Find D that minimizes C_total by setting dC_total/dD = 0. Verification / Alternative check: Empirical charts (e.g., economic velocity charts) embed the same trade-off and lead to comparable selections when local energy prices and material costs are applied. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Viscosity or density alone cannot capture capital–operating trade-offs. Ignoring both costs defeats the purpose of “economic” sizing. Maximizing Reynolds number is not an economic objective. Common Pitfalls: Using only minimum first cost; ignoring pump power and energy tariffs; neglecting time value of money in long-life pipelines. Final Answer: Total cost (pumping/operating cost + fixed/pipe cost)

Question 12

Shell-and-tube heat exchanger practices: pick out the statement that is WRONG.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Shell-and-tube exchangers must be mechanically supported and internally baffled to achieve target heat-transfer coefficients while limiting bypass and vibration. Understanding correct mechanical practices is critical for safe installation and operation. Given Data / Assumptions: Conventional horizontal shell-and-tube exchanger with removable tube bundle. Standard baffle-and-tie-rod construction as found in industry. Focus is on correctness of statements about supports and baffles. Concept / Approach: Horizontal vessels are normally mounted on saddle supports, not brackets. Vertical vessels frequently use brackets or lugs welded to the shell for support at structural beams. Baffles are carried on tie rods with spacers and must fit closely to limit shell-side bypass while still allowing assembly/removal. Step-by-Step Solution: Evaluate each statement against standard practice.(a) Minimal but adequate clearances: correct.(b) Tie rods and spacers support/locate baffles: correct.(c) Details vary by design; multiple tie rods of adequate diameter are used—practice is plausible.(d) Reversed support types for orientations—this is wrong; horizontal shells use saddles.(e) Purpose of baffles stated correctly. Verification / Alternative check: Manufacturer drawings and standards (e.g., TEMA practices) show horizontal shells on saddles; vertical units often on brackets/lugs or skirts (for towers). Why Other Options Are Wrong: (a) Accurate; excessive clearance causes bypass. (b) Accurate; baffles are not supported by tubes themselves. (c) Acceptable practice; the essence (use of multiple tie rods) holds. (e) Accurate description of baffle function. Common Pitfalls: Assuming identical supports for all orientations; ignoring maintenance needs when setting clearances. Final Answer: Bracket supports are used for a horizontal shell, while saddle supports are used for a vertical shell.

Question 13

In a calandria-type evaporator, the tube height (tube length within the calandria) is normally less than how many metres?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Calandria-type evaporators employ a short vertical tube bundle housed in a steam chest (the calandria). The geometry promotes vigorous boiling and circulation while limiting pressure drop and mechanical height. Given Data / Assumptions: Typical single-effect calandria design for aqueous solutions. Conventional industrial practice for tube length. Focus is on normal (not extreme) design ranges. Concept / Approach: Calandria units generally use relatively short tubes to maintain good circulation and to contain the steam chest height. Values under 2 metres are commonly cited for standard designs, which differentiates them from long-tube vertical evaporators. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the characteristic tube height range for calandria units.Standard references place tube height under approximately 2 m.Select the nearest limit in the options: 2 metres. Verification / Alternative check: Comparative designs (e.g., long-tube vertical) use much longer tubes; calandria types are recognized for short tube bundles. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 1 and 0.75: Possible in small units but too restrictive as a general “normal” upper bound. 3.5 and 5.5: Too high for typical calandria practice; more in line with other evaporator styles. Common Pitfalls: Confusing calandria-type with long-tube vertical evaporators; generalizing specialized designs as “normal.” Final Answer: 2

Question 14

Thin cylindrical/spherical shells: if thickness-to-diameter ratio is less than 0.1 (thin shell), which stress effect is neglected in membrane-stress calculations?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Thin-shell theory simplifies stress analysis of pressurized vessels and domes by assuming membrane action dominates. This is common for tanks, pipelines, and vessels with small thickness compared to radius/diameter. Given Data / Assumptions: Thickness-to-diameter ratio t/D < 0.1, qualifying as “thin.” Uniform internal pressure, away from edges/discontinuities. Material behaves elastically within service conditions. Concept / Approach: Membrane theory assumes forces act in the shell surface producing primarily in-plane (membrane) stresses. Bending moments and transverse shear are neglected in regions far from boundaries or local loads, enabling simple closed-form expressions for hoop and meridional stresses. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify dominant stresses: hoop and longitudinal (membrane) due to pressure.Recognize that bending moments are small for thin shells under uniform pressure.Therefore, bending is neglected in membrane-stress calculations. Verification / Alternative check: Edge effects and nozzles require refined analysis (e.g., bending present locally). Away from discontinuities, membrane assumptions accurately predict stresses and deformations. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Deformation/elongation: These occur and are part of the membrane response. Shear: Transverse shear is small but the primary neglected effect emphasized in theory is bending. Internal pressure: This is the loading cause, not something neglected. Common Pitfalls: Applying membrane formulas near supports/nozzles where bending cannot be ignored; using thin-shell equations for thick shells. Final Answer: Bending

Question 15

Evaporation performance: steam economy is evaporation per unit steam used; capacity is total evaporation per hour. What is the effect of using multiple effect evaporation?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Evaporators concentrate solutions by vaporizing solvent, usually water. Two key performance metrics are capacity (kg/h evaporated) and steam economy (kg evaporation per kg of live steam). Multiple-effect arrangements reuse vapor from one effect as the heating medium in the next, improving energy utilization. Given Data / Assumptions: Comparable total heat-transfer area when comparing single vs multiple effect. Standard forward-feed or backward-feed multiple-effect configuration. No change in overall equipment size beyond distributing area across effects. Concept / Approach: Multiple effects primarily improve steam economy because latent heat is cascaded. Capacity depends primarily on total area and available temperature driving force. With fixed total area, capacity does not inherently increase just by splitting into effects; the main benefit is economy. Step-by-Step Solution: Define economy: kg evaporation per kg steam.Using vapor from an upstream effect as heating medium increases total evaporation per unit live steam.Capacity: For a fixed total area, the hourly evaporation capacity remains roughly unchanged.Therefore, economy increases while capacity is not inherently affected. Verification / Alternative check: Textbook comparisons show economy roughly proportional to the number of effects (idealized), while capacity scaling requires more area or higher temperature driving force, not merely more effects. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Increases capacity: Not a direct consequence without more area or driving force. Does not affect capacity (alone): True, but ignores the key improvement in economy. Reduces economy: Opposite of the thermodynamic advantage of reusing vapor. Common Pitfalls: Assuming more effects always mean more capacity; conflating economy with capacity; overlooking the role of total heat-transfer area and temperature profile across effects. Final Answer: Both (b) and (c)

Question 16

In continuous distillation design, the Souders–Brown equation (for maximum allowable vapor velocity to avoid entrainment) is primarily used to estimate the required diameter of the column based on flooding considerations. What does it directly help …

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: The Souders–Brown equation is a classic capacity relationship used in vapor–liquid contacting equipment such as distillation columns, absorbers, and vapor–liquid separators. It sets an upper limit on superficial vapor velocity to prevent liquid entrainment and flooding. Designers use this limit to select an economical column diameter that carries the specified vapor flow safely below flooding. Given Data / Assumptions: Steady-state continuous distillation column. Known vapor and liquid rates and physical properties (density-based K-value usage). Acceptable design fraction of flooding (for example 70–85%). Concept / Approach: The standard form gives a maximum allowable superficial vapor velocity v_allow based on a K-value and the density difference between liquid and vapor. Once v_allow is known, the cross-sectional area A needed for the specified vapor volumetric rate Q_v is A = Q_v / v_allow. From A, the column internal diameter follows by D = sqrt(4A / π). Step-by-Step Solution: Use Souders–Brown to compute v_allow from fluid densities and service K.Compute cross-sectional area: A = Q_v / v_allow.Convert area to diameter: D = sqrt(4A / π).Apply a design fraction of flooding (capacity margin) to finalize D. Verification / Alternative check: Compare resulting diameter with vendor correlations or rate-based hydraulics. Check that tray pressure drop, weir loading, and downcomer backup are acceptable at the chosen D. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Tray pressure drop: determined by tray hydraulics, not directly by Souders–Brown.Downcomer residence time: set by hydraulics/layout, not the S–B velocity limit.Number of stages: dictated by mass-transfer/thermodynamics (McCabe–Thiele or rate-based), not S–B.Weir height: a tray hardware variable, not derived from S–B. Common Pitfalls: Using a generic K without checking service (foaming/corrosive/dirty).Sizing exactly at flooding without a margin.Ignoring liquid handling (downcomer backup) after picking diameter. Final Answer: Diameter of the distillation column (capacity at allowable vapor velocity)

Question 17

On a McCabe–Thiele diagram, what is the slope of the feed (q-line) when the feed entering the distillation column is a saturated liquid (q = 1)?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: The McCabe–Thiele method graphically determines the number of ideal stages for binary distillation. The feed condition is represented by a feed line (q-line) whose slope depends on feed thermal state. Correctly identifying q-line slope is essential for accurate construction of operating lines and stage counts. Given Data / Assumptions: Binary distillation under constant molar overflow assumptions. Feed is a saturated liquid: q = 1. Standard McCabe–Thiele coordinates: y (vapor composition) on the vertical axis and x (liquid composition) on the horizontal axis. Concept / Approach: The feed line slope is given by slope = q / (q − 1). For a saturated liquid, q = 1. Substituting gives slope = 1 / (1 − 1) which is undefined (division by zero) and, in the geometric construction, corresponds to a vertical line—i.e., infinite slope. Step-by-Step Solution: Start from slope formula: slope = q / (q − 1).Insert q = 1 (saturated liquid).Compute: slope = 1 / 0 → vertical line → infinite slope.Therefore the q-line is vertical through the feed composition point. Verification / Alternative check: For a saturated vapor (q = 0), slope = 0 (horizontal). For subcooled liquid (q > 1), slope is positive > ∞ trend; for partially vaporized feeds (0 < q < 1), slope is negative. These limiting cases confirm the saturated liquid case is vertical. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 0 or exactly 1: correspond to saturated vapor or special cases, not saturated liquid.> 1 or < 1: finite slopes that contradict the vertical-line requirement. Common Pitfalls: Forgetting the formula and misplacing the q-line, which distorts operating lines and stage count.Confusing vertical with horizontal at q = 0. Final Answer: ∞

Question 18

For identical feed composition, flow rate, and conversion, and for all positive reaction orders, how does the required reactor volume of a mixed flow reactor (CSTR) compare to that of a plug flow reactor (PFR)?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Choosing between a continuous stirred-tank reactor (CSTR) and a plug flow reactor (PFR) has major implications for reactor size and operating cost. For positive-order reactions, concentration decreases with conversion, altering rate profiles across the reactor volume. Understanding the CSTR vs. PFR volume requirement is a foundational design insight. Given Data / Assumptions: Isothermal operation with identical inlet composition and flow rate. Same target conversion in both reactors. Positive overall reaction order so that rate increases with concentration. Concept / Approach: In a CSTR, the exit concentration equals the reactor concentration due to perfect mixing, so the entire volume operates at the lowest driving concentration (for a given conversion). In contrast, a PFR experiences high concentration at the inlet, where the reaction is fastest, and progressively lower concentration toward the outlet, using the kinetics more efficiently. Hence, for positive orders, V_CSTR > V_PFR for the same conversion. Step-by-Step Solution: Define rate law r = k * C^n, with n > 0.CSTR design: V = F_A0 * (X / r_exit) with r_exit based on low exit concentration.PFR design: V = ∫ (F_A0 / r) dX benefiting from higher rates at higher concentrations near inlet.Thus, V_CSTR / V_PFR > 1 for n > 0. Verification / Alternative check: Graphical design using 1/−r_A vs. X shows a rectangle (CSTR) larger than the area under the curve (PFR) to reach the same X when 1/−r_A increases with X (positive order). Why Other Options Are Wrong: Equal to 1 or less than 1: contradict positive-order behavior.Equal to reaction order: no such direct equality exists.Indeterminate: kinetics sign (positive order) is sufficient to establish inequality. Common Pitfalls: Assuming mixing always helps; it helps for zero/negative orders, not positive.Ignoring nonisothermal effects that can change rate profiles. Final Answer: Greater than 1

Question 19

In a concentric (double-pipe) heat exchanger, for a fluid flowing through the annulus, what effective hydraulic diameter should be used for heat-transfer calculations (assuming both annular surfaces are heat-transferring)? D2 and D1 are the inside d…

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Hydraulic diameter is used in correlations for both pressure drop and convective heat transfer. In a double-pipe exchanger annulus, choosing the proper characteristic length is essential to apply Nusselt, Reynolds, and friction factor correlations consistently. Given Data / Assumptions: Concentric annulus with inner pipe ID = D1 and outer pipe ID = D2. Both the inner pipe outer surface and the outer pipe inner surface participate in heat transfer. Single-phase flow, no fins or inserts. Concept / Approach: The hydraulic diameter is defined as D_h = 4 * (flow area) / (wetted perimeter). For an annulus with both walls wetted and heat-transferring, this simplifies to D_h = D2 − D1. This value is valid for both flow (pressure-drop) and heat-transfer correlations when both surfaces are active. Step-by-Step Solution: Compute flow area: A = (π/4) * (D2^2 − D1^2).Wetted perimeter (both walls): P = π * (D2 + D1).D_h = 4A / P = 4 * [(π/4)(D2^2 − D1^2)] / [π(D2 + D1)] = (D2 − D1).Use D_h in Re, Nu, and friction correlations as usual. Verification / Alternative check: Textbook derivations for concentric annuli consistently reduce to D2 − D1 when both bounding surfaces contribute to wetted perimeter and heat transfer, confirming equivalence to the flow basis. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Less/More than D2 − D1: contradicts the 4A/P derivation.Pressure-drop only: D_h applies to both heat transfer and pressure drop here.One-wall perimeter only: applicable to cases with one heated wall; not this case. Common Pitfalls: Using only one wall in P when both are wetted and active.Mixing OD/ID definitions, leading to wrong D1 or D2. Final Answer: Equal to D2 − D1 (same as for flow area basis)

Question 20

In continuous rotary vacuum filtration, what is the typical pressure differential (vacuum level) maintained across the filter medium, expressed as an equivalent column of mercury (mm Hg)?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Rotary vacuum filters operate by maintaining a pressure differential across a porous medium to draw liquid through and form a cake. The achievable vacuum and corresponding pressure drop determine filtrate rate, cake formation, and moisture content. Given Data / Assumptions: Standard industrial rotary drum vacuum filter with typical seal and vacuum pump performance. Filtration of slurries under ambient temperature without boiling. Vacuum expressed as equivalent mercury column (mm Hg). Concept / Approach: Commercial systems generally maintain a vacuum corresponding to a pressure differential of a few hundred mm Hg. Too low a ΔP causes poor rates; too close to full vacuum is impractical due to leakage and hardware limits. The broadly accepted operating window is about 250–500 mm Hg for steady, economical filtration. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify practical vacuum range for rotary vacuum filters.Select mid-range ΔP that balances rate and equipment capability.Hence, 250–500 mm Hg is typical. Verification / Alternative check: Vendor curves and filtration handbooks show filtrate flux increasing with ΔP but leveling due to cake resistance and leakage; typical plants operate in the 0.33–0.66 bar range (~250–500 mm Hg). Why Other Options Are Wrong: 50–150 mm Hg: often insufficient for practical industrial rates.600–700 mm Hg: near equipment and seal limits for continuous service.900–950 mm Hg: unrealistic for continuous rotary systems due to leakage. Common Pitfalls: Confusing gauge vacuum readings with absolute pressure.Ignoring cake compressibility and filtrate viscosity when setting ΔP. Final Answer: 250 to 500 mm Hg

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