In steel structures, which items are included in the dead load when assessing permanent actions on the frame?

Introduction / Context:
Dead load (permanent action) is fundamental for sizing members and foundations. It encompasses all permanently attached and supported materials that will remain in place throughout the structure’s life.

Given Data / Assumptions:

• Building frame with steel members.
• Permanent finishes, cladding, and plant considered part of dead load if fixed.

Concept / Approach:
Dead load includes the self-weight of structure plus any permanently attached components whose weight does not vary significantly with usage. This ensures that members are designed for the sustained gravity effects that drive deflection and long-term stress.

Step-by-Step Solution:

Verification / Alternative check:
Cross-check with architectural and MEP schedules; ensure consistency with load combinations and serviceability criteria.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:
Limiting dead load to only steelwork underestimates design actions; excluding permanent supported materials is incorrect.

Common Pitfalls:
Misclassifying removable items as dead load; overlooking future fit-outs that add permanent weight; not updating self-weight after member size changes.

Final Answer:
All the above