In clinical microbiology and gastroenterology, what is pseudomembranous colitis, and which statements about its etiology are correct? (Consider antibiotic exposure, Gram reaction, and spore formation by the causative agent.)

Introduction:
Pseudomembranous colitis is a severe antibiotic-associated colitis characterized by inflammation of the colon and formation of yellow-white plaques (pseudomembranes). This question evaluates your understanding of the classic triad of facts: precipitating risk (antibiotics), the Gram reaction of the pathogen, and its ability to form spores, all of which are central to diagnosis, infection control, and treatment.

Given Data / Assumptions:

• Antibiotic exposure disrupts normal intestinal microbiota, allowing pathogen overgrowth.
• The causative organism is Gram-positive.
• The organism forms spores that resist environmental stresses and many disinfectants.
• Toxin production drives colonic injury and systemic effects.

Concept / Approach:
The prototypical cause is Clostridioides difficile (formerly Clostridium difficile). It is a Gram-positive, obligately anaerobic, spore-forming bacillus that produces toxins (TcdA and TcdB) responsible for mucosal damage and pseudomembrane formation. Broad-spectrum antibiotics, particularly those that disturb colonic flora, increase susceptibility by removing colonization resistance. Spores persist on surfaces, necessitating specific disinfection and contact precautions in healthcare settings.

Step-by-Step Solution:
Identify precipitating factor: antibiotic exposure disrupts normal flora, enabling C. difficile proliferation. Confirm bacterial identity: C. difficile is Gram-positive under standard staining. Verify spore formation: spores facilitate transmission and recurrence. Synthesize: all listed statements accurately describe pseudomembranous colitis etiology.

Verification / Alternative check:
Clinical features often include watery diarrhea and leukocytosis; endoscopy shows pseudomembranes. Laboratory confirmation uses toxin assays or nucleic acid amplification; environmental persistence aligns with spore biology.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:
Each individual option (antibiotic precipitants, Gram-positive, spore-forming) is true but incomplete alone; the comprehensive answer is therefore the best choice.

Common Pitfalls:
Assuming any antibiotic-associated diarrhea equals pseudomembranous colitis; toxin-mediated disease and endoscopic findings differentiate severe cases. Another pitfall is neglecting sporicidal cleaning agents, leading to ongoing nosocomial transmission.

Final Answer:
all of the above correctly characterize pseudomembranous colitis and its causative agent.