Q: Radiative property definition What do we call the ratio of energy absorbed by a body to the total radiant energy incident upon it?

Introduction / Context: Radiative surface properties include absorptivity (absorptive power), reflectivity, transmissivity, emissivity, and emissive power. Correct definitions avoid serious mistakes in enclosure radiation problems. Given Data / Assumptions: Incident radiant energy is known; fractions are absorbed, reflected, or transmitted. Opaque solids typically have negligible transmissivity. Concept / Approach: Absorptive power (absorptivity) α = Q_absorbed / Q_incident. Emissive power E is the rate of emission per unit area. Emissivity ε is the ratio of a surface’s emissive power to that of a blackbody at the same temperature. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify requested ratio: absorbed/incident.Match to definition: absorptive power (α).Select the corresponding term from options. Verification / Alternative check: Energy balance for a surface: α + ρ + τ = 1, where ρ is reflectivity and τ transmissivity. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Emissive power: emission from surface itself, not absorption. Emissivity: ratio to blackbody emission, not absorbed/incident. Reflectivity: reflected/incident, different quantity. Common Pitfalls: Mixing α and ε; they can be equal only under thermal equilibrium and same wavelength band (Kirchhoff’s law), but definitions remain distinct. Final Answer: absorptive power

Q: Factors affecting emissive power The total emissive power of a real surface depends on which of the following parameters?

Introduction / Context: Emissive power characterizes how much thermal radiation a surface emits. For real (non-black) bodies, several variables influence emission. Given Data / Assumptions: Real surface, not an ideal blackbody. Spectral behavior matters (dependence on wavelength). Concept / Approach: Blackbody emission depends only on temperature (E_b = σT^4). Real surfaces have emissivity ε that depends on wavelength, temperature, and surface condition (oxidation, roughness, finish), so E = ε(λ,T,material) * σT^4 (integrated over spectrum). Step-by-Step Solution: Recognize temperature drives the σT^4 magnitude.Acknowledge physical nature (polished vs. oxidized) alters ε.Wavelength dependence means spectral emissive power varies across λ. Verification / Alternative check: Spectral emissivity charts show strong dependence on wavelength and surface finish for metals and ceramics. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Single-factor choices ignore the multidimensional dependence. “Area only” is irrelevant to per-unit-area emissive power. Common Pitfalls: Assuming a constant ε across all wavelengths; using blackbody assumption for shiny metals, leading to large errors. Final Answer: all of these

Question 1

Counter-current (counter-flow) heat exchanger — inlet/exit temperature states In a counter-current flow heat exchanger, which inlet condition best describes the relative hot/cold states of the two fluids?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Flow arrangement dictates temperature profiles and log-mean temperature difference (LMTD). Counter-flow generally achieves larger LMTD than parallel flow for the same terminal temperatures, improving effectiveness. Given Data / Assumptions: Two-stream heat exchanger with one hot stream and one cold stream. Counter-flow means the streams move in opposite directions. Concept / Approach: In counter-flow, the hot fluid enters where the cold fluid exits, and vice versa. Therefore, at the common inlet station of each stream, one is at its hottest while the other (coming from the cold end) is at its coldest. This large temperature difference at both ends enhances driving force. Step-by-Step Solution: Map ends: hot inlet pairs with cold outlet; cold inlet pairs with hot outlet.Hence at “inlet” of each stream, states are opposite extremes.Therefore select: one fluid coldest, the other hottest at inlet. Verification / Alternative check: Plot temperature vs. length: counter-flow lines cross from high to low in opposite directions, showing maximal approach at the cold end and hot end. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Both hottest or both coldest at inlet describes parallel flow.“Both hottest at exit” is unphysical for simultaneous heat exchange.Identical states at inlet/exit contradict heat transfer. Common Pitfalls: Confusing “inlet of exchanger” with “inlet of each stream.” Consider each stream’s own inlet boundary. Final Answer: one fluid is coldest and the other is hottest at inlet

Question 2

Refrigeration piping — location of expansion device In a standard vapor-compression system with a liquid receiver after the condenser, the expansion (throttling) device is installed between which two components?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: The expansion device meters liquid refrigerant and drops its pressure from condenser/receiver conditions to evaporator conditions. Correct placement ensures stable feed and effective heat absorption. Given Data / Assumptions: System has: compressor → condenser → receiver → expansion device → evaporator → back to compressor. Subcooled liquid in receiver; two-phase mixture after throttling. Concept / Approach: The receiver stores high-pressure liquid leaving the condenser. The expansion device must receive this liquid and expand it to the low-pressure evaporator. Therefore, it is installed in the liquid line between the receiver and the evaporator inlet. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify high-pressure liquid reservoir: receiver.Identify low-pressure heat absorber: evaporator.Place expansion device in the line connecting these two. Verification / Alternative check: Sight glasses and filter-driers are also placed in the liquid line upstream of the expansion valve to ensure clean, bubble-free liquid, confirming this segment is the correct location. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Compressor–condenser or condenser–receiver segments still carry high-pressure fluid; no throttling should occur there.Evaporator–compressor line is the low-pressure suction line; installing a throttling device there would starve the evaporator. Common Pitfalls: Feeding a flashing two-phase mixture into long vertical rises before the valve—maintain solid column of liquid to the valve for stable control. Final Answer: receiver and evaporator

Question 3

Psychrometric process — specific humidity during sensible cooling During sensible cooling of air (no condensation occurs), how does the specific humidity (humidity ratio) change?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Sensible cooling reduces air temperature without removing moisture. It is common when air is cooled but kept above its dew point, such as pre-cooling before dehumidification. Given Data / Assumptions: No moisture is condensed; coil surface temperature remains above the air’s dew point. Process is steady and adiabatic with respect to mass transfer of water. Concept / Approach: Specific humidity w equals the mass of water vapour per mass of dry air. If no condensation occurs and no water is added, the mass of water vapour remains unchanged, so w is constant. On a psychrometric chart, the process line moves horizontally to the left (lower dry-bulb) at the same w. Step-by-Step Solution: Check coil/air temperatures relative to dew point.If coil temperature > dew point, no condensation forms.Therefore, w remains constant while dry-bulb temperature decreases. Verification / Alternative check: Compare with cooling and dehumidification: when the coil is below dew point, the process line descends leftward, reducing w as condensate is removed. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Any change in w implies mass transfer of water; that does not occur in pure sensible cooling. Common Pitfalls: Assuming relative humidity constant; it actually increases as temperature drops at constant w, potentially approaching saturation if cooling continues. Final Answer: remains constant

Question 4

Metals — effect of temperature on thermal conductivity For most solid metals used in engineering, how does thermal conductivity vary as temperature rises (within ordinary operating ranges)?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Heat conduction in metals is dominated by free electrons. Understanding how conductivity changes with temperature supports accurate thermal design for heat sinks, tooling, and high-temperature components. Given Data / Assumptions: Pure or common engineering metals (copper, aluminum, steel). Moderate temperature increases within service ranges (no phase change). Concept / Approach: As temperature rises, lattice vibrations (phonons) intensify and scatter heat-carrying electrons more effectively. This increased scattering reduces electron mean free path, lowering thermal conductivity. Thus, for most metals, conductivity decreases with temperature. Alloys may show weaker dependence, but the general trend for pure metals is downward. Step-by-Step Solution: Consider k_metal determined largely by electron transport.Higher temperature → more scattering → lower k.Therefore, select “decreases.” Verification / Alternative check: Property tables show copper: k falls from ~400 W/m·K near room temperature to lower values at elevated temperatures; aluminum and steels exhibit similar declines. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Remains the same” ignores well-documented temperature dependence.“Increases” is typical for many non-metals but not metals.“First increases then decreases” is not the standard metallic trend in normal ranges.“Becomes infinite” is unphysical. Common Pitfalls: Generalizing metallic behavior to all materials. Ceramics and gases behave differently; always consult data for the specific material class. Final Answer: decreases

Question 5

Evaporator terminology — common names used in refrigeration Which of the following alternative names correctly refer to the evaporator component in a vapor-compression refrigeration system?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: The evaporator is the low-pressure heat absorber where liquid refrigerant boils and removes heat from the conditioned medium. In practice, different industries use varied names for the same component based on application temperature. Given Data / Assumptions: The component is the evaporator in a vapor-compression system. Applications range from comfort cooling to freezing. Concept / Approach: When the evaporator is used for comfort or process cooling above 0°C, it is commonly called a cooling coil or chilling coil. In low-temperature applications (freezers, cold rooms), the same heat-absorbing coil is often termed a freezing coil. All refer to the evaporator function: absorbing heat as refrigerant evaporates. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify core function: absorb heat at low pressure via boiling.Map names to use cases: cooling (comfort), chilling (process), freezing (sub-zero).Hence, all listed names are acceptable synonyms. Verification / Alternative check: Manufacturer catalogs and site terminology label fin-and-tube or plate heat exchangers as cooling/chilling/freezing coils depending on duty, all connected to the suction line. Why Other Options Are Wrong: “Superheating coil only” is not a standard component name; superheat is a condition often achieved in the evaporator outlet region, not a separate coil in typical systems. Common Pitfalls: Assuming different names imply different thermodynamic components. They describe the same evaporator used at different temperature levels. Final Answer: all of these

Question 6

Stefan–Boltzmann law and mode of heat transfer  Is the Stefan–Boltzmann law applicable to convection heat transfer, or only to thermal radiation?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: This item checks whether you can correctly associate classic heat-transfer laws with the proper mode: conduction, convection, or radiation. The Stefan–Boltzmann law is often misapplied outside radiation. Given Data / Assumptions: No participating media (clear line-of-sight radiation, gray/diffuse surface approximations acceptable). Convection is a surface–fluid phenomenon depending on fluid motion and properties. Concept / Approach: The Stefan–Boltzmann law states that the total hemispherical emissive power of an ideal blackbody is E_b = σ * T^4. Net radiative exchange between real surfaces uses this as a basis with emissivity and view factors. Convection uses Newton’s law of cooling, q_conv = h * A * (T_s − T_∞), not T^4. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify the mode: Stefan–Boltzmann involves radiation.Write the form: q_rad = ε * σ * A * (T_s^4 − T_sur^4).Convection depends on film coefficient h, not σ, so the law does not apply to convection. Verification / Alternative check: Compare units: σ has units W/m^2·K^4, while h has units W/m^2·K. Different physics, different laws. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Agree: incorrect—σT^4 is radiative, not convective. Conduction only / mass transfer only / not a heat-transfer law: all incorrect descriptions. Common Pitfalls: Confusing high-temperature convection with radiation; forgetting that radiation scales with the fourth power of absolute temperature. Final Answer: Disagree

Question 7

Unit check for the Stefan–Boltzmann constant σ  Select the correct SI unit for σ used in thermal radiation calculations.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: The Stefan–Boltzmann constant σ appears in the blackbody relation E_b = σ * T^4. Knowing σ’s units ensures dimensional consistency in radiation problems. Given Data / Assumptions: Blackbody emissive power E_b has units W/m^2. Temperature is absolute (kelvin), denoted K. Concept / Approach: Because E_b = σ * T^4 and E_b has units W/m^2, σ must carry units that when multiplied by K^4 yield W/m^2. Step-by-Step Solution: Start with E_b units: W/m^2.T^4 units: K^4.Solve for σ units: (W/m^2) / K^4 = W/m^2·K^−4 = W/m^2·K^4 in denominator form. Verification / Alternative check: Numerically, σ ≈ 5.6704 × 10^−8 W/m^2·K^4, consistent with standard references. Why Other Options Are Wrong: W/m·K, W/m·K^2, W/m^2·K^2, J/m^2·K do not satisfy E_b = σ * T^4 dimensional balance. Common Pitfalls: Mixing σ with convection coefficient h (W/m^2·K) or conduction constant k (W/m·K). Final Answer: W/m^2·K^4

Question 8

COP versus heat-engine efficiency  Is the coefficient of performance (COP) simply the reciprocal of a heat engine’s thermal efficiency?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Students often conflate COP of refrigerators/heat pumps with thermal efficiency of heat engines. They are different ratios with different numerators and denominators. Given Data / Assumptions: Heat engine: η = W_out / Q_in (0 < η < 1). Refrigerator: COP_R = Q_L / W_in. Heat pump: COP_HP = Q_H / W_in. Concept / Approach: COPs can exceed 1 because the device moves heat using work input. There is no universal reciprocal relationship between COP and engine efficiency; they involve different heat terms at different reservoirs. Step-by-Step Solution: Write definitions: η, COP_R, COP_HP.For Carnot devices: COP_R,Carnot = T_L / (T_H − T_L), COP_HP,Carnot = T_H / (T_H − T_L).Neither is simply 1/η_Carnot, which equals 1 / (1 − T_L/T_H). Verification / Alternative check: Numerical example: T_H = 300 K, T_L = 270 K → η_Carnot = 1 − 270/300 = 0.1. Then COP_R,Carnot = 270/30 = 9, while 1/η_Carnot = 10. Not equal. Why Other Options Are Wrong: True / “only” variants: they incorrectly assert a general reciprocal relation. “Only at Carnot limits”: not even then, as shown. Common Pitfalls: Assuming all performance ratios invert each other; forgetting COP depends on temperature lift, not only on efficiency definitions. Final Answer: False

Question 9

Radiative property definition  What do we call the ratio of energy absorbed by a body to the total radiant energy incident upon it?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Radiative surface properties include absorptivity (absorptive power), reflectivity, transmissivity, emissivity, and emissive power. Correct definitions avoid serious mistakes in enclosure radiation problems. Given Data / Assumptions: Incident radiant energy is known; fractions are absorbed, reflected, or transmitted. Opaque solids typically have negligible transmissivity. Concept / Approach: Absorptive power (absorptivity) α = Q_absorbed / Q_incident. Emissive power E is the rate of emission per unit area. Emissivity ε is the ratio of a surface’s emissive power to that of a blackbody at the same temperature. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify requested ratio: absorbed/incident.Match to definition: absorptive power (α).Select the corresponding term from options. Verification / Alternative check: Energy balance for a surface: α + ρ + τ = 1, where ρ is reflectivity and τ transmissivity. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Emissive power: emission from surface itself, not absorption. Emissivity: ratio to blackbody emission, not absorbed/incident. Reflectivity: reflected/incident, different quantity. Common Pitfalls: Mixing α and ε; they can be equal only under thermal equilibrium and same wavelength band (Kirchhoff’s law), but definitions remain distinct. Final Answer: absorptive power

Question 10

Factors affecting emissive power  The total emissive power of a real surface depends on which of the following parameters?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Emissive power characterizes how much thermal radiation a surface emits. For real (non-black) bodies, several variables influence emission. Given Data / Assumptions: Real surface, not an ideal blackbody. Spectral behavior matters (dependence on wavelength). Concept / Approach: Blackbody emission depends only on temperature (E_b = σT^4). Real surfaces have emissivity ε that depends on wavelength, temperature, and surface condition (oxidation, roughness, finish), so E = ε(λ,T,material) * σT^4 (integrated over spectrum). Step-by-Step Solution: Recognize temperature drives the σT^4 magnitude.Acknowledge physical nature (polished vs. oxidized) alters ε.Wavelength dependence means spectral emissive power varies across λ. Verification / Alternative check: Spectral emissivity charts show strong dependence on wavelength and surface finish for metals and ceramics. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Single-factor choices ignore the multidimensional dependence. “Area only” is irrelevant to per-unit-area emissive power. Common Pitfalls: Assuming a constant ε across all wavelengths; using blackbody assumption for shiny metals, leading to large errors. Final Answer: all of these

Question 11

Heat exchanger effectiveness using inlet/outlet temperatures  For a heat exchanger where the cold fluid has the lower heat capacity rate, and temperatures are: cold in t_c1, cold out t_c2; hot in t_h1, hot out t_h2. What is the effectiveness ε expre…

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Effectiveness–NTU analysis provides a robust way to rate heat exchangers without detailed area or U values. This question focuses on the temperature-form definition when the cold stream has the minimum heat capacity rate. Given Data / Assumptions: Cold fluid is the minimum-capacity stream (C_min). Steady operation with no heat losses to surroundings. Single-phase sensible heating/cooling. Concept / Approach: Effectiveness is defined as ε = q_actual / q_max. With cold fluid as C_min, the maximum possible temperature rise of the cold stream is to reach the hot inlet temperature t_h1, giving q_max = C_min * (t_h1 − t_c1). The actual heat gained by the cold stream is q_actual = C_cold * (t_c2 − t_c1). Because C_min = C_cold here, the C terms cancel in the ratio. Step-by-Step Solution: Write ε = q_actual / q_max.q_actual = C_cold * (t_c2 − t_c1).q_max = C_min * (t_h1 − t_c1) = C_cold * (t_h1 − t_c1).Therefore ε = (t_c2 − t_c1) / (t_h1 − t_c1). Verification / Alternative check: Check bounds: if t_c2 → t_h1, ε → 1; if no heating (t_c2 = t_c1), ε = 0. Both are physically consistent. Why Other Options Are Wrong: (t_h1 − t_h2)/(t_h1 − t_c1): would be correct only if hot stream were C_min. Other forms mix outlet temperatures inconsistently with the definition of q_max. Common Pitfalls: Using the wrong stream as C_min; forgetting that effectiveness is independent of flow arrangement in this temperature-form expression, while ε–NTU relationships depend on configuration. Final Answer: ε = (t_c2 − t_c1) / (t_h1 − t_c1)

Question 12

Psychrometric chart reading – Specific humidity lines  Identify the orientation and spacing of specific humidity (humidity ratio) lines on a standard psychrometric chart.

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Reading a psychrometric chart correctly is essential in HVAC design. Each family of lines has a distinct orientation: dry-bulb, wet-bulb, relative humidity, and humidity ratio (specific humidity). Given Data / Assumptions: Standard ASHRAE-style chart axes: x-axis is dry-bulb temperature; y-axis is humidity ratio w (kg/kg dry air). Sea-level barometric pressure chart for simplicity. Concept / Approach: Specific humidity (humidity ratio w) is plotted on the vertical axis. Therefore, isolines of constant w run horizontally across the chart. Over the typical range, spacing is uniform. Step-by-Step Solution: Recall axes: DBT horizontal, w vertical.Lines of constant w are perpendicular to the w axis → horizontal.Chart construction uses uniform w increments → uniform spacing. Verification / Alternative check: Compare with other line families: constant RH are curves; wet-bulb are inclined nearly straight lines; DBT are vertical lines. This contrast confirms recognition. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Vertical lines correspond to constant DBT, not constant w. Curved/inclined patterns represent RH or wet-bulb families, not w. Common Pitfalls: Confusing humidity ratio with relative humidity; assuming non-uniform spacing due to the curved saturation boundary. Final Answer: horizontal and uniformly spaced

Question 13

Conduction analogy – Meaning of x/(kA)  In one-dimensional steady conduction through a plane wall of thickness x, area A, and thermal conductivity k, Fourier’s law can be written as q = (ΔT) / (x/(kA)). The term x/(kA) is called:

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Heat transfer by conduction is often analyzed using an electrical analogy. The temperature difference plays the role of voltage, heat rate the role of current, and x/(kA) the role of resistance. Given Data / Assumptions: One-dimensional, steady-state conduction through a uniform slab. Constant material properties. Concept / Approach: Fourier’s law in slab form: q = kA * (ΔT/x). Rearranged: q = (ΔT) / (x/(kA)). Thus x/(kA) impedes heat flow just as electrical resistance R impedes current I in Ohm’s law, I = V/R. Step-by-Step Solution: Start with q = kA * ΔT / x.Define thermal resistance R_cond = x/(kA).Write q = ΔT / R_cond, highlighting the analogy. Verification / Alternative check: Units: x in m, k in W/m·K, A in m^2 → x/(kA) has units K/W, the correct unit for thermal resistance. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Thermal conductivity k is already in numerator of Fourier’s law. “Thermal coefficient” is vague; not a standard term here. Heat capacity and Biot number relate to transient response and internal/external resistance ratio, respectively. Common Pitfalls: Forgetting area in the resistance; mixing up contact resistance (additional) with conduction resistance. Final Answer: thermal resistance

Question 14

Refrigerants – Lowest normal boiling point at 1 atm  Among ammonia (R-717), carbon dioxide (R-744), sulphur dioxide, and R-12, which has the lowest normal boiling point at atmospheric pressure?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Normal boiling point (NBP) helps compare refrigerants’ volatility and typical evaporating pressures at atmospheric reference conditions. Given Data / Assumptions: NBP is defined at 1 atm (101.3 kPa). CO₂ does not exist as a liquid at 1 atm; it sublimates at −78.5 °C. Concept / Approach: Typical NBPs: ammonia ≈ −33 °C; R-12 ≈ −29.8 °C; sulphur dioxide ≈ −10 °C. CO₂ lacks a normal boiling point at 1 atm (no liquid phase), so it is not comparable on this basis. Step-by-Step Solution: List NBPs for those with liquid at 1 atm.Ammonia has the lowest (most negative) NBP among such candidates.Therefore select ammonia. Verification / Alternative check: Handbook tables confirm the stated NBPs; the CO₂ exception is due to its triple point at 5.18 bar. Why Other Options Are Wrong: R-12 and SO₂ have higher (warmer) boiling points than ammonia. CO₂ does not have a normal boiling point at 1 atm; it sublimates instead. Common Pitfalls: Confusing sublimation temperature of dry ice with a boiling point; overlooking the pressure dependence of phase transitions. Final Answer: Ammonia

Question 15

Domestic vapour-compression refrigerators – Common working fluid  Historically, which refrigerant has been most commonly used in domestic vapour-compression refrigerators?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Refrigerant selection in domestic refrigerators balances safety, efficiency, materials compatibility, and compressor technology. Understanding legacy choices helps interpret older equipment and exam conventions. Given Data / Assumptions: Question follows traditional textbook history (pre-phaseout era). Focus on domestic, hermetic, small-capacity refrigerators. Concept / Approach: For decades, R-12 (dichlorodifluoromethane) dominated household refrigerators due to favorable pressures, chemical stability, and compatibility with mineral oils. Modern units often use isobutane (R-600a), but in classic exam contexts, R-12 is the expected answer. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify typical historical domestic refrigerant: R-12.Ammonia is toxic and used in industrial plants; CO₂ requires high pressures.Hence, choose R-12. Verification / Alternative check: Manufacturer data sheets and regulatory histories show broad R-12 use before environmental phaseouts under Montreal Protocol, later replaced by HFCs/HFOs or hydrocarbons. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Ammonia and CO₂ are not common in small domestic hermetic refrigerators (safety/high pressure constraints). “All of these” and unusual blends are incorrect historically. Common Pitfalls: Applying current eco-refrigerant trends (e.g., R-600a) to legacy-oriented questions without noting historical context. Final Answer: R-12

Question 16

Human thermal comfort in HVAC: The human body generally feels comfortable when the net heat stored in the body over time is

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: In thermal comfort and HVAC design, the human body continuously exchanges heat with its surroundings via convection, radiation, evaporation, and respiration. Comfort is achieved when metabolic heat production is balanced by heat loss so that the body does not store or lose heat overall. This question targets the fundamental energy balance condition for comfort. Given Data / Assumptions: Metabolic rate corresponds to a sedentary or light activity condition typical for comfort design. Clothing insulation and air motion are within usual comfort ranges. Steady conditions over the averaging period (no rapid transients). Concept / Approach: Apply the human heat balance: S = M − W − (C + R + E + Res), where S is heat storage, M is metabolic rate, W is external work, and the terms in parentheses are heat losses by convection, radiation, evaporation (sweat diffusion/evaporation), and respiration. Thermal comfort corresponds to S ≈ 0 so that core temperature remains regulated without stress. Step-by-Step Solution: 1) Write the balance: S = net heat production − net heat loss.2) For comfort, core temperature must be stable → S = 0 over time.3) HVAC variables (dry-bulb temperature, mean radiant temperature, air speed, humidity) are adjusted so C + R + E + Res equals M − W.4) Hence the correct condition for comfort is zero heat storage. Verification / Alternative check: Standards like ASHRAE comfort models (PMV/PPD) implicitly seek S ≈ 0; when predicted mean vote is near neutral, the underlying balance indicates negligible storage. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Positive: would raise core temperature, leading to discomfort/heat stress. Negative: would lower core temperature, causing cool discomfort or cold stress. “None of these” is incorrect because S = 0 is the target condition. “Slightly positive” is not a standard comfort criterion. Common Pitfalls: Confusing short transients (brief positive/negative S) with steady comfort, or focusing only on air temperature while ignoring humidity, air speed, and radiation which all influence the balance. Final Answer: zero

Question 17

Refrigerant property check: What is the freezing (melting) point of sulphur dioxide (SO₂) used in legacy refrigeration systems?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) is an older inorganic refrigerant historically used before modern halo-carbons and ammonia dominated. Knowing key thermophysical points like freezing (melting) temperature is important for safe operation and to avoid blockages in expansion devices at low temperatures. Given Data / Assumptions: Standard atmospheric pressure conditions when quoting freezing point. Pure SO₂ (no mixture effects). Freezing point refers to the solid–liquid equilibrium temperature. Concept / Approach: The freezing point is a fixed material property at 1 atm and is obtained from standard thermophysical tables. Below this temperature, SO₂ solidifies, which is hazardous for valves and capillary tubes in refrigeration circuits. Step-by-Step Solution: Consult reliable property data: SO₂ freezing point ≈ −75.2°C.Interpretation: Systems approaching this temperature risk solid formation if local pressure and composition bring the state to the solid–liquid curve.Operational takeaway: Select evaporator temperatures safely above the freezing point or use refrigerants suited to the required low temperature. Verification / Alternative check: Cross-check with chemical handbooks and refrigeration property charts listing SO₂ melt point near −75°C. Why Other Options Are Wrong: −56.6°C and −77.7°C are not the standard melt points for SO₂ at 1 atm. −135.8°C is more characteristic of far colder substances; not SO₂. −10°C is close to SO₂ normal boiling point (about −10°C), not the freezing point. Common Pitfalls: Confusing boiling and freezing points; both are negative for SO₂ but differ by tens of degrees. Final Answer: -75.2°C

Question 18

Refrigeration practice: In a vapour-compression system, where should the oil separator be installed to return lubricating oil to the compressor without carrying it through the condenser and evaporator?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Compressors require lubrication, and a small fraction of oil inevitably travels with the refrigerant. Excess oil circulating through heat exchangers degrades heat transfer and can pool in the evaporator. An oil separator removes oil from the discharge gas and routes it back to the crankcase. Given Data / Assumptions: Standard vapour-compression layout: compressor → condenser → expansion device → evaporator → compressor. Oil separator is a mechanical device that coalesces and separates oil droplets. Objective: minimize oil carryover through the condenser/evaporator. Concept / Approach: Place the separator where oil concentration is highest and refrigerant is superheated gas at high pressure: immediately downstream of the compressor on the hot gas line. Separated oil is returned via a controlled return line to the compressor sump, often by differential pressure. Step-by-Step Reasoning: 1) Oil entrainment occurs in the compressor discharge.2) Install separator on discharge line before any cooling/condensing.3) Recycle separated oil to compressor; clean refrigerant proceeds to condenser. Verification / Alternative check: Equipment manuals and piping schematics consistently show separators on the discharge line; liquid lines do not carry bulk oil. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Before compressor or after evaporator (suction): gas is cool and oil tends to return naturally; separators are ineffective here. Liquid-line locations contain mostly liquid refrigerant, not oil mist. Common Pitfalls: Misplacing the separator on the suction line or omitting proper oil return control can starve the compressor of lubrication. Final Answer: Between the compressor and the condenser (on the hot discharge line)

Question 19

Industrial/commercial reciprocating refrigeration: Which refrigerant is most widely used in larger plants due to excellent thermodynamic efficiency and zero GWP?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Refrigerant choice in large reciprocating and screw plants balances efficiency, environmental impact, safety, and cost. Ammonia has remained the workhorse of industrial refrigeration for food processing, cold storage, and ice plants. Given Data / Assumptions: “Larger” implies hundreds of kW to multi-MW capacities. Preference for mature technology and readily available components. Compliance with environmental regulations (ODP = 0, very low GWP). Concept / Approach: Ammonia (R-717) offers high latent heat, excellent heat-transfer coefficients, and high COP, reducing power per tonne of refrigeration. It has zero ozone depletion potential and essentially zero GWP. Though toxic and reactive with copper, proper design (steel piping, safety systems) mitigates risks. Other options have limitations in efficiency, pressure levels, or environmental impact. Step-by-Step Reasoning: 1) Compare thermodynamic performance: R-717 typically yields superior COP.2) Evaluate environmental aspects: R-717 has ODP 0 and negligible GWP; legacy R-12 is phased out.3) Practicality: abundant industrial expertise, robust components, and oil management practices. Verification / Alternative check: Industry standards and many installed plants confirm widespread use of ammonia in large systems. Why Other Options Are Wrong: CO₂ (R-744) demands transcritical or very high pressures; used, but not the most common for reciprocating in large low-stage plants. SO₂ (R-764) is obsolete due to toxicity and corrosion. R-12 is banned; R-134a is common in medium systems but less dominant in large industrial reciprocating plants versus ammonia. Common Pitfalls: Overlooking material compatibility (ammonia attacks copper alloys) and necessary safety ventilation/detection systems. Final Answer: Ammonia (R-717)

Question 20

Heat transfer mode identification: Conduction is the transfer of heat within a body or between bodies in contact when the constituent particles

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Understanding the distinction between conduction, convection, and radiation is foundational. Conduction involves energy transfer through molecular interactions, lattice vibrations, and electron transport without macroscopic motion of the material as a whole. Given Data / Assumptions: Solids, liquids, or gases may conduct heat. No bulk flow of the medium in conduction itself. Temperature gradients drive the process. Concept / Approach: Conduction follows Fourier’s law: q⃗ = −k ∇T. Energy diffuses from high to low temperature due to microscopic mechanisms. In convection, by contrast, heat transfer accompanies bulk fluid motion; in radiation, energy is transmitted by electromagnetic waves through a participating or vacuum medium. Step-by-Step Reasoning: 1) Identify presence of bulk motion: if present, the primary mechanism is convection.2) If no bulk motion but temperature gradient exists, heat flows by conduction.3) Recognize radiation as line-of-sight energy exchange independent of material contact. Verification / Alternative check: Experiments with still air layers vs. stirred air demonstrate much higher transfer with motion (convection), confirming that conduction alone acts without macroscopic movement. Why Other Options Are Wrong: (a) Describes convection, not conduction. (c) and (d) are vague and not standard physical descriptions. (e) Conduction does not require or imply forced convection. Common Pitfalls: Confusing microscopic molecular motion (always present) with macroscopic bulk flow; conduction concerns the former, not the latter. Final Answer: do not move actually (no bulk motion, only energy diffusion)

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