In hydrology: During a rainstorm, which of the following factors significantly reduce the infiltration capacity of a soil surface?

Introduction / Context:
Infiltration capacity is the maximum rate at which soil can absorb rainfall. Understanding what reduces this capacity is critical for flood estimation, urban drainage design, and soil conservation. Multiple surface and subsurface processes can act together during a storm to lower infiltration.

Given Data / Assumptions:

• Rainstorm conditions with sustained rainfall intensity.
• Typical natural or compacted soil profiles.
• No special soil amendments or artificial drainage in place.

Concept / Approach:
Factors that reduce infiltration generally decrease the soil’s ability to transmit water by closing macropores, sealing the surface, or saturating the profile. Each option addresses a known mechanism: surface storage, antecedent moisture, mechanical sealing, and fines migration.

Step-by-Step Explanation:
Surface detention creates temporary ponding; when storage fills, excess becomes runoff, while infiltration rate may decline as hydraulic gradient changes.High antecedent moisture means pores are already occupied by water; less suction and fewer empty pores remain to accept new rainfall.Compaction from raindrop impact or traffic reduces pore volume and permeability, lowering infiltration capacity.Fine particles wash into surface pores, forming a seal or crust that dramatically reduces near-surface conductivity.

Verification / Alternative check:
Field infiltration tests (double-ring infiltrometers) commonly show declining infiltration rates during storms due to sealing and saturation effects, corroborating the combined influence listed above.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

• Any single factor alone can reduce capacity, but the best answer recognizes that all listed mechanisms contribute during storms.

Common Pitfalls:

• Assuming initial infiltration capacity remains constant throughout a storm.
• Ignoring the role of fine sediment in forming surface crusts.

Final Answer:
All of the above