After the destruction of India s traditional trade, industries and handicrafts under colonial rule, which class mainly had to bear the burden of heavy taxation?

Introduction / Context:
One of the key themes in the economic history of colonial India is the drain of wealth and the burden placed on ordinary people by British revenue policies. As indigenous industries, trade, and handicrafts declined due to competition from machine made imports and discriminatory policies, the agrarian sector became the main source of revenue. This question asks which social class bore the main burden of taxation in that situation.

Given Data / Assumptions:

• Traditional trade and handicrafts had been ruined under colonial rule.
• The British state still needed large revenues to maintain its army and administration.
• Options mention zamindars, peasantry, income tax payers, and all of the above.

Concept / Approach:
In colonial India, land revenue was the single largest source of income for the British administration. Systems like Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari, and Mahalwari were all designed to extract revenue from the agricultural sector. Although zamindars acted as intermediaries in some regions, they often passed the pressure down to the peasants. Income tax, where it existed, affected a relatively small urban minority. Therefore, the peasantry ultimately shouldered most of the taxation burden, both directly and indirectly.

Step-by-Step Solution:
Step 1: Recognise that the decline of handicrafts and urban industries made the agrarian sector the primary tax base. Step 2: Remember that land revenue demands under British rule were often very high and rigid. Step 3: In the Permanent Settlement, zamindars collected revenue but pushed it onto the cultivating peasants. Step 4: Under Ryotwari and Mahalwari systems, peasants or village communities were assessed directly. Step 5: Income tax was introduced much later and affected a small segment, so it could not form the main burden. Step 6: Conclude that the peasantry carried the main weight of colonial taxation.

Verification / Alternative check:
Economic historians repeatedly describe the Indian peasantry as overburdened by land revenue, cesses, and other dues. Peasant uprisings and agrarian distress in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries further confirm that rural cultivators were the worst affected by colonial taxation policies.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:
Zamindars, while responsible for paying a fixed revenue to the state, often enhanced rents and extracted surplus from peasants, thus shifting the burden downward. Income tax payers formed a small, mainly urban group. The suggestion that all classes bore the burden equally is misleading, as evidence clearly shows peasants suffered the most.

Common Pitfalls:
Some learners may choose zamindars because they see them as landlords paying revenue, but they overlook that zamindars had the power to offload this burden onto tenants. Understanding the structure of agrarian relations under colonial rule is crucial to avoid this error.

Final Answer:
After the ruin of traditional trade and handicrafts, the main burden of taxation in colonial India was borne by the peasantry.