The two great Buddhist universities of Nalanda and Vikramshila in eastern India were mainly patronised and supported by which ruling dynasty?

Introduction / Context:
Nalanda and Vikramshila were two of the most important centres of Buddhist learning in early medieval India. Located in what is now Bihar, they attracted students and scholars from across Asia. This question tests your knowledge of which regional dynasty provided major royal patronage to these universities, thereby sustaining Buddhist scholarship for centuries.

Given Data / Assumptions:

• The institutions named are Nalanda and Vikramshila universities.
• Both are associated with Buddhism and located in eastern India.
• Options mention the Pala, Paramara, and Chandela dynasties and a general all of the above.

Concept / Approach:
The Pala dynasty ruled large parts of Bengal and Bihar from the eighth to the twelfth centuries. They were strong patrons of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism and supported monastic universities like Nalanda, Vikramshila, and others. The Paramaras and Chandelas were Rajput dynasties ruling in western and central India with different religious patronage patterns. They are not primarily associated with these eastern Buddhist institutions. Therefore, the logical answer is the Pala dynasty.

Step-by-Step Solution:
Step 1: Recall that Nalanda and Vikramshila flourished in eastern India, especially in the region of present day Bihar. Step 2: Remember that the Pala rulers of Bengal and Bihar were well known for patronising Buddhist monasteries and universities. Step 3: Note that inscriptions and Tibetan sources frequently mention Pala kings as benefactors of these centres. Step 4: Recognise that the Paramaras ruled mainly in Malwa and the Chandelas in Bundelkhand, regions not directly linked with these institutions. Step 5: Rule out the option all of the above because there is no strong historical evidence that Paramaras and Chandelas jointly patronised Nalanda and Vikramshila. Step 6: Conclude that the Pala dynasty is the correct answer.

Verification / Alternative check:
Historical surveys of Indian Buddhism clearly describe the period of Pala rule as a later golden age for Buddhist monastic universities in eastern India. Many surviving records of donations, repairs, and endowments at Nalanda and Vikramshila name Pala kings as patrons.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:
The Paramaras and Chandelas may have supported temples and learning centres in their own regions, but they are not the principal patrons of Nalanda and Vikramshila. Selecting all of the above incorrectly implies a common patronage that is not supported by evidence.

Common Pitfalls:
Students sometimes assume that if one dynasty is correct, then all must be correct and they choose all of the above. It is safer to anchor your answer in the geographical and religious context, which clearly points to the Palas.

Final Answer:
The Buddhist universities of Nalanda and Vikramshila were mainly patronised by the Pala dynasty.