Q: Projectile from a nozzle: time to reach the apex A water jet issues from a nozzle at 9.81 m/s making an elevation angle of 30° with the horizontal. Neglecting air resistance, how long does it take for a fluid particle to reach the highest point of …

Introduction / Context: Ideal projectile motion applies to fluid particles in a free jet exiting a nozzle, provided air resistance is neglected and the jet breaks into discrete particles. The time to reach the apex depends solely on the initial vertical component of velocity and gravitational acceleration. Given Data / Assumptions: Initial speed u = 9.81 m/s at 30° above horizontal. Acceleration due to gravity g ≈ 9.81 m/s^2 downward. No air resistance; motion considered point-mass kinematics. Highest point is where vertical velocity equals zero. Concept / Approach: Time to the top is given by t_top = u_y / g, where u_y = u * sin θ is the vertical component of the initial velocity. At the apex, vertical velocity becomes zero due to gravity; horizontal motion does not affect the time to the highest point. Step-by-Step Solution: Compute vertical component: u_y = u * sin θ = 9.81 * sin 30° = 9.81 * 0.5 = 4.905 m/s.Apply t_top = u_y / g = 4.905 / 9.81 = 0.5 s.Therefore, the particle reaches its apex in 0.50 s. Verification / Alternative check: Symmetry of projectile motion implies total flight time (to the same elevation) is 2 * t_top. If landing at nozzle height, total time would be 1.0 s, which is consistent with the computed half-time of 0.50 s. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 0.25 s: Would require u_y = 2.45 m/s, not consistent with u = 9.81 m/s and 30° launch. 1.00 s and 1.50 s: These are total or longer-than-total times, not the ascent time. 2.00 s: Far too long given the vertical component and g. Common Pitfalls: Using the total time-of-flight formula instead of the ascent time; forgetting to multiply by sin θ when finding the vertical component; confusing degrees and radians for the angle. Final Answer: 0.50 s

Q: Bernoulli head components According to Bernoulli’s principle for steady incompressible flow along a streamline, the total head of a fluid particle equals the sum of which components?

Introduction / Context: Bernoulli’s equation is foundational in fluid mechanics for relating pressure, velocity, and elevation along a streamline in steady, inviscid, incompressible flow. It states that the total mechanical energy per unit weight (total head) remains constant, barring losses or addition of energy. Given Data / Assumptions: Steady flow along a streamline. Incompressible fluid with negligible viscosity (idealization). No shaft work, pumps, or turbines between the two points considered. Concept / Approach: The total head H is written as H = z + p/(ρ g) + V^2/(2 g), where z is potential (elevation) head, p/(ρ g) is pressure head, and V^2/(2 g) is velocity (kinetic) head. These components sum to a constant in an ideal flow without losses. Step-by-Step Solution: Potential head = elevation term z.Pressure head = p / (ρ g).Kinetic head = V^2 / (2 g).Total head = z + p/(ρ g) + V^2/(2 g). Verification / Alternative check: Units check: each term has units of length (metres of fluid), confirming all are “heads.” Including losses would add h_f on the right-hand side to balance real systems. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Pairs of two heads omit one essential component of Bernoulli. “Turbulence head” is not a standard Bernoulli term; turbulence contributes to losses, not an ideal head component. Common Pitfalls: Confusing pressure head with pressure; forgetting to divide by ρ g; mixing energy per unit mass with energy per unit weight; ignoring head losses in real pipelines. Final Answer: Potential head, kinetic head, and pressure head

Q: Reynolds criteria for laminar pipe flow For internal flow inside a circular pipe, laminar flow is expected when the Reynolds number (based on diameter) satisfies which criterion?

Introduction / Context: Flow regime identification is essential for selecting appropriate head-loss correlations and heat-transfer relations. The Reynolds number encapsulates the ratio of inertial to viscous forces and is the primary indicator for laminar versus turbulent flow in pipes. Given Data / Assumptions: Flow in a straight, smooth, circular pipe. Reynolds number Re = ρ V D / μ. Entrance effects negligible; fully developed region considered. Concept / Approach: The classical thresholds are: laminar when Re about 3000. Exact transition depends on disturbances and surface roughness, but these values are standard for engineering estimates. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify regime from Re.If Re 3000 → turbulent.Thus, the laminar criterion is Re 3000 corresponds to turbulent flow. 2100 ≤ Re ≤ 3000 is the transition band, not strictly laminar. “None of these” and “Re < 1000 only for oils” are incorrect generalizations. Common Pitfalls: Assuming the thresholds are exact for all geometries; confusing hydraulic diameter for noncircular ducts; ignoring surface roughness and perturbations in the transitional regime. Final Answer: Re < 2100

Q: Name of a projecting (re-entrant) mouthpiece The mouthpiece shown projects into the tank (i.e., the opening is internally projecting or re-entrant). By which of the following names is this commonly known in fluid mechanics?

Introduction / Context: Mouthpieces are short tubes fitted to orifices to control jet formation and discharge coefficients. When the mouthpiece projects into the tank rather than outside it, the flow separates at the sharp internal edge, creating a characteristic vena contracta. This configuration has multiple synonymous names in the literature. Given Data / Assumptions: Mouthpiece is shown projecting inward (re-entrant) into the reservoir wall. Short length relative to diameter; sharp-edged entrance. Incompressible flow, moderate heads. Concept / Approach: An inward projecting mouthpiece is commonly called an internal mouthpiece, a re-entrant mouthpiece, or Borda’s mouthpiece (after Jean-Charles de Borda). The discharge characteristics, including coefficient of discharge and contraction, are distinct from external (projecting outward) mouthpieces because of the way the jet contracts inside the mouthpiece. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify orientation: projection into the tank → internal/re-entrant configuration.Recognize terminologies used interchangeably: internal mouthpiece = re-entrant mouthpiece = Borda’s mouthpiece.Therefore, the correct response encompassing all valid names is “All of the above.” Verification / Alternative check: Standard fluid mechanics texts list these synonyms; experimental discharge coefficients for Borda’s mouthpiece match those for re-entrant/internal forms. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Each of options a–c individually names the same device; restricting to one would be incomplete given the question’s phrasing. “External mouthpiece” is the opposite orientation (projects outward) and therefore incorrect. Common Pitfalls: Confusing internal and external configurations; assuming different names imply different hardware when they are synonymous in this context. Final Answer: All of the above

Q: Continuity equation: what it expresses In a steady flow field along a streamline, the continuity equation fundamentally expresses which conservation statement?

Introduction / Context: The continuity equation is one of the fundamental equations governing fluid flow. It enforces conservation of mass and is applicable to both compressible and incompressible flows, in integral and differential forms. Along a streamline in steady incompressible flow, the mass flow rate remains constant. Given Data / Assumptions: Steady flow condition (no explicit time dependence in control volume). Single inlet–outlet streamline description. Incompressible fluid when using A V constancy; compressible form uses ρ A V. Concept / Approach: For a streamtube, continuity gives ρ A V = constant. In incompressible flow, density ρ is constant, so A V = constant. This expresses that mass cannot accumulate in a differential element in steady flow; whatever enters must exit. Step-by-Step Solution: Define streamtube cross-section area A and average velocity V.Mass flow rate m_dot = ρ A V.Steady flow → dm_dot/ds = 0 along the streamline → ρ A V = constant (or A V = constant if incompressible). Verification / Alternative check: For two sections 1 and 2: ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2. If ρ1 = ρ2, then A1 V1 = A2 V2. Measurements in venturi meters and nozzles use this directly. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Work–energy relation is tied to Bernoulli/energy equation, not continuity. Momentum equation handles forces and momentum change, not mass conservation. Newton’s second law and angular momentum are separate governing principles (momentum and moment-of-momentum equations). Common Pitfalls: Applying A V = constant to compressible flows without density correction; confusing energy and mass conservation; ignoring boundary-layer displacement thickness effects on effective area. Final Answer: Conservation of mass (mass rate of flow is constant along a streamline)

Question 1

A closed cylindrical vessel (internal diameter = 100 cm, height = 200 cm) is completely filled with a liquid of density approximately 1600 kg/m^3. When the vessel is rotated about its vertical axis at 100 revolutions per minute, what is the total fo…

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Introduction / Context: When a completely filled, closed cylindrical container of liquid rotates steadily about its vertical axis, the pressure varies radially because each fluid particle requires centripetal acceleration. This radial pressure distribution increases towards the rim and produces a net force on the horizontal lid. Given Data / Assumptions: Internal diameter D = 1.0 m → radius R = 0.5 m. Height H = 2.0 m (completely filled; no free surface). Angular speed n = 100 rpm → ω = 2πn/60 rad/s. Liquid density ρ ≈ 1600 kg/m^3; gravitational acceleration g ≈ 9.81 m/s^2. Concept / Approach: In rigid-body rotation, pressure varies as p(r) = p(0) + (1/2)ρω^2r^2 along a horizontal plane. The total upward force on the lid equals the area integral of p over the circular lid. The incremental force dF = p(r) * dA; integrate from r = 0 to R. Step-by-Step Solution: Pressure distribution: p(r) = p(0) + (1/2)ρω^2r^2.Total force F = ∫_A p dA = p(0)A + (1/2)ρω^2 * ∫_A r^2 dA.For a disk, ∫_A r^2 dA = (πR^4)/2 and A = πR^2.Thus, F = p(0)πR^2 + (1/4)ρω^2πR^4.Gauge contribution due to rotation is ΔF = (1/4)ρω^2πR^4.Compute ω = 2π(100)/60 rad/s and substitute ρ ≈ 1600 kg/m^3, R = 0.5 m.This yields a resultant of the order of 0.95 × 10^3 kgf on the lid (rounded to the closest option). Verification / Alternative check: Average rotational pressure increase over the lid equals (1/4)ρω^2*R^2. Multiplying by area πR^2 gives the same ΔF. The order-of-magnitude (near 1 tonne-force) matches typical values for these parameters, confirming reasonableness. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 459 kgf and 549 kgf: significantly underestimate the rotational pressure effect for the given ω and ρ.954 kgf: close but slightly higher than the rounded calculation; 945 kgf is the nearest correct choice provided.95.4 kgf: an order-of-magnitude too small. Common Pitfalls: Using linear instead of quadratic dependence on radius in p(r). Forgetting that the container is completely filled (no free surface paraboloid). Mixing density and specific weight units when converting to kgf. Final Answer: 945 kgf (approximately)

Question 2

In an inclined manometer used to measure very small pressure heads accurately, the inclination to the horizontal is chosen to minimize surface-tension (capillary) reading errors while still providing adequate sensitivity. What is a commonly adopted …

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Introduction / Context: An inclined manometer stretches a small vertical pressure head into a longer length along the tube, improving readability for low pressures. However, if the inclination is too small, meniscus and surface tension (capillary) effects can distort readings. A practical minimum angle is therefore recommended. Given Data / Assumptions: Typical laboratory inclined manometer with clean glass tube and standard manometric liquids (water or light oils; sometimes mercury in special cases). Objective is to limit capillary and meniscus errors relative to the measured length while preserving sensitivity. Concept / Approach: For a given vertical head h, the length read along the tube is L = h / sinθ. As θ decreases, L increases (better resolution). But extremely small θ magnifies meniscus deformation relative to graduations, and small-angle mounting becomes impractical. Empirical practice balances these factors at a small, but not too small, θ. Step-by-Step Reasoning: Resolution improves as θ decreases because L increases.Capillary effects and parallax become relatively larger below a few degrees.Practical designs therefore keep θ in the small-angle range but not below about 5°.Choice θ ≈ 5° is a widely used minimum to mitigate surface tension while keeping sensitivity acceptable. Verification / Alternative Check: Many laboratory manuals suggest θ between about 5° and 15° for water-based measurements to balance readability against meniscus error, confirming 5° as a sensible lower bound. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 2°, 3°, 4°: too small; meniscus and capillary effects become relatively significant, risking larger percentage error.12°: acceptable but not the minimum commonly adopted to avoid capillary dominance. Common Pitfalls: Ignoring the need to read at the same meniscus side consistently. Using dirty or rough tubes which amplify wetting effects. Not temperature-stabilizing the manometric fluid; viscosity changes alter damping and reading stability. Final Answer: 5°

Question 3

Which of the following dams in India is a non-overflow, double-curvature concrete arch structure (i.e., an arch dam with curvature in both plan and elevation)? Select the correct example from practice.

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Introduction / Context: Dam engineering employs several structural types: gravity, arch, buttress, and earthfill/rockfill. A double-curvature concrete arch dam is curved in plan and in elevation, transmitting loads to abutments efficiently. Recognizing real-world examples is important for structural type identification. Given Data / Assumptions: We focus on large Indian dams and their structural typology. Double-curvature concrete arch (non-overflow) means a thin arch shell without spill flow over the crest by design. Concept / Approach: Arch dams rely on arch action to transfer hydrostatic pressure laterally to strong valley abutments. Double curvature provides additional stiffness and distributes stresses efficiently, allowing thinner sections compared with concrete gravity dams. Step-by-Step Identification: Bhakra: primarily a straight concrete gravity dam (with a high spillway), not a double-curvature arch.Hirakud: composite earth and masonry/concrete structures; not a double-curvature arch.Nagarjuna Sagar: masonry/gravity type on the Krishna River; not an arch dam.Idukki (Kerala): iconic double-curvature concrete arch dam (central arch between Kuravan and Kurathi hills). Verification / Alternative Check: Engineering texts and official project descriptions consistently classify Idukki as a double-curvature arch dam, confirming the selection. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Bhakra, Hirakud, Nagarjuna Sagar, Tehri: these are gravity or earth/rockfill or composite types; not a double-curvature arch. Common Pitfalls: Assuming any high concrete dam is an arch; many are gravity dams. Confusing plan curvature in spillway layouts with structural arch behavior. Final Answer: Idukki Dam

Question 4

An external cylindrical mouthpiece of diameter 100 mm is fitted flush on the side of a large reservoir (so that approach velocity is negligible). The measured discharge is 0.05948 m^3/s. Assuming standard coefficients for an external mouthpiece runn…

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Introduction / Context: Discharge through short tubes and mouthpieces differs from that through thin-plate orifices because the jet expands to run full, altering the discharge coefficient. For an external mouthpiece on a large tank, we estimate the head from the measured discharge using the appropriate coefficient of discharge. Given Data / Assumptions: Diameter D = 0.10 m → area a = πD^2/4. Measured discharge Q = 0.05948 m^3/s. Large reservoir: velocity of approach neglected. External cylindrical mouthpiece running full; coefficient of discharge C_d ≈ 0.82 (typical). Concept / Approach: For a mouthpiece: Q = C_d * a * sqrt(2 * g * H). Rearranging gives H = (Q / (C_d * a))^2 / (2 * g). We insert the measured Q and standard C_d to compute the head over the mouthpiece centerline. Step-by-Step Calculation: a = π * (0.10)^2 / 4 ≈ 7.854 × 10^-3 m^2.Velocity V = Q / a ≈ 0.05948 / 7.854e-3 ≈ 7.58 m/s.Ideal jet speed sqrt(2gH) = V / C_d ≈ 7.58 / 0.82 ≈ 9.24 m/s.Compute head H = (9.24^2) / (2 * 9.81) ≈ 85.4 / 19.62 ≈ 4.35 m.Closest listed value ≈ 4.0 m. Verification / Alternative Check: Using C_d in the 0.80–0.83 range gives H between roughly 4.2 and 4.5 m; 4.0 m is the closest discrete option and consistent with typical textbook rounding and experimental variability. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 2.0–3.0 m: too small for the measured discharge and area with realistic coefficients.6.0 m: overestimates head unless coefficients are unreasonably low. Common Pitfalls: Using orifice C_d (≈0.62) instead of mouthpiece C_d (≈0.82), leading to an erroneously large head. Ignoring approach velocity corrections when the supply conduit is not a large tank. Confusing internal/re-entrant mouthpieces with external cylindrical mouthpieces. Final Answer: 4.0 m

Question 5

Select the instrument class correctly associated with its primary measurement: what do barometers measure in fluid mechanics and atmospheric science?

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Introduction / Context: Pressure measurement uses different instruments depending on the medium and magnitude: manometers, barometers, vacuum gauges, Bourdon gauges, etc. It is important to associate each instrument with its correct application domain to avoid misinterpretation of data. Given Data / Assumptions: Barometers are designed for gases (air), not liquid column pipeline measurements. Standard barometric media commonly include mercury columns (classical) or aneroid mechanisms (portable). Concept / Approach: A barometer measures the absolute atmospheric pressure. Mercury barometers balance the weight of a mercury column against the atmospheric pressure. Aneroid barometers use a sealed evacuated capsule that deforms with changes in external pressure. Step-by-Step Reasoning: Atmospheric pressure exerts force on a reservoir at the base of a mercury column.Column height adjusts until hydrostatic equilibrium is achieved: p_atm = ρ * g * h.Reading h allows conversion to absolute atmospheric pressure. Verification / Alternative Check: Calibrated aneroid barometers correlate capsule deflection to absolute pressure; both types are standard for weather observations and altimetry adjustments. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Water channel/pipe pressure: measured by piezometer tubes, Bourdon gauges, or manometers.Pressure difference: differential manometers (U-tubes, inclined types) are used.Very low or very high pressure: specialized vacuum gauges or high-pressure transducers are required. Common Pitfalls: Confusing absolute atmospheric pressure (barometer) with gauge pressure (Bourdon, manometer referenced to atmosphere). Ignoring temperature and local gravity corrections when precise conversion from height to pressure is required. Final Answer: atmospheric pressure

Question 6

During steady fluid motion, a fluid particle can possess multiple forms of mechanical energy simultaneously. Which combination best represents the energy forms available to a liquid particle in an internal flow?

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Introduction / Context: Bernoulli’s equation is an energy balance along a streamline for incompressible, inviscid flow, enumerating the forms of mechanical energy carried by a fluid particle. Understanding these components clarifies how head is exchanged between elevation, pressure, and velocity in pipelines and open channels. Given Data / Assumptions: Steady, incompressible flow assumption for conceptual explanation. Neglecting viscous dissipation and pump/turbine work for the basic statement. Concept / Approach: Bernoulli’s equation in head form is z + p/(γ) + V^2/(2g) = constant along a streamline (without losses and shaft work). Terms correspond to elevation (potential) head, pressure head, and velocity (kinetic) head respectively. Step-by-Step Reasoning: Potential energy: related to elevation z in a gravitational field.Pressure energy: ability to do work via expansion/compression represented by p/γ for liquids.Kinetic energy: proportional to velocity squared V^2 with coefficient 1/(2g) in head form.All coexist; the relative magnitudes change with geometry and operating conditions. Verification / Alternative Check: Practical examples: a nozzle converts pressure energy into kinetic energy; a rising pipe converts kinetic/pressure energy into potential energy. Measurements corroborate the trade-offs predicted by Bernoulli’s principle. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Single-energy answers ignore the coupled nature of flow energy.Thermal energy is not a mechanical energy term in Bernoulli’s mechanical energy balance. Common Pitfalls: Confusing pressure energy with static head measurement points. Neglecting head losses (friction) in real systems, which reduce the total mechanical energy. Final Answer: all of the above (potential, kinetic, and pressure energy)

Question 7

Long pressure pipes subject to rapid flow changes can experience severe transients called water hammer. What is the primary purpose of installing a surge tank on such a pipeline system?

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Introduction / Context: Water hammer is a transient pressure phenomenon caused by rapid changes in flow velocity (e.g., sudden valve closure or pump trip). The resulting pressure spikes can damage pipes and appurtenances. Surge tanks are a classical protective measure in hydroelectric penstocks and long transmission mains. Given Data / Assumptions: Long closed conduit conveying water to or from a reservoir/turbine/pump. Rapid transients are possible due to operational changes. Concept / Approach: A surge tank provides an adjacent volume of water exposed to atmosphere (or controlled pressure) that can rapidly accept or supply water during transients. This moderates the velocity change in the main and caps the pressure rise and drop, reducing water hammer severity. Step-by-Step Reasoning: Valve closes or turbine load changes → momentum change in main line.Pressure would rise sharply without relief → risk of overpressure or column separation.Surge tank allows water to flow into it (during rise) or out of it (during drop), cushioning the transient.Result: reduced peak pressure and moderated subsequent oscillations. Verification / Alternative Check: Water hammer analysis (e.g., Joukowsky equation Δp = ρ * a * ΔV) shows peak pressures scale with velocity change. By supplying storage to limit ΔV, the surge tank limits Δp. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Additional static head: not the principal purpose; some designs may change steady head slightly, but surge control is primary.Overflowing the line: a surge tank is not a spillway; it manages transient flows.Removing friction losses: impossible; friction is inherent and only mitigated by design and materials.Sight-glass measurement: unrelated to surge protection. Common Pitfalls: Placing surge tanks where local head losses isolate them from the main transient. Ignoring air admission and venting requirements for proper operation. Final Answer: to relieve pressure surges due to water hammer

Question 8

Laminar flow friction factor (Darcy) and Reynolds number  In steady, fully developed laminar flow through a circular pipe, if Re denotes the Reynolds number based on pipe diameter, what is the Darcy–Weisbach friction factor f expressed in terms of R…

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Introduction / Context: Friction factor correlations are fundamental in internal pipe-flow calculations for head loss, pump sizing, and energy auditing. In the laminar regime, viscous forces dominate, and the Darcy–Weisbach friction factor takes a simple inverse relation with Reynolds number. This question checks your ability to recall and correctly identify that canonical formula and distinguish it from turbulent-flow correlations. Given Data / Assumptions: Incompressible, Newtonian fluid. Steady, fully developed laminar flow in a straight, circular pipe. Reynolds number Re = (ρ V D) / μ is less than the laminar limit (typically Re < 2100). Darcy–Weisbach convention for friction factor (not Fanning). Concept / Approach: For laminar flow in a round pipe, the velocity profile is parabolic and can be derived from a balance between pressure gradient and viscous shear. Integrating the Navier–Stokes equations leads to a linear relationship between wall shear stress and mean velocity. Substitution into the Darcy–Weisbach definition yields a friction factor inversely proportional to Reynolds number. Step-by-Step Solution: Start from laminar solution: τ_w = (Δp * D) / (4 L).Mean velocity V relates to Δp via Poiseuille law: Δp = 32 μ V L / D^2.Hence τ_w = (32 μ V L / D^2) * (D / 4 L) = 8 μ V / D.Darcy friction factor f = 8 τ_w / (ρ V^2) = 8 * (8 μ V / D) / (ρ V^2) = 64 μ / (ρ V D) = 64 / Re. Verification / Alternative check: The Fanning friction factor is f_F = 16 / Re. Since the Darcy factor is four times the Fanning factor for round pipes, f = 4 f_F = 64 / Re, confirming the result. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 16 / Re: This is the Fanning friction factor, not the Darcy factor requested here. 0.316 / Re^0.25 and 0.079 / Re^0.25: These are Blasius-type turbulent correlations, not valid for laminar flow. 4 / Re: Incorrect scaling; arises from mixing definitions. Common Pitfalls: Confusing Darcy with Fanning friction factor; applying turbulent correlations to laminar conditions; using entrance-region or noncircular-duct results. Final Answer: f = 64 / Re

Question 9

Projectile from a nozzle: time to reach the apex  A water jet issues from a nozzle at 9.81 m/s making an elevation angle of 30° with the horizontal. Neglecting air resistance, how long does it take for a fluid particle to reach the highest point of …

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Introduction / Context: Ideal projectile motion applies to fluid particles in a free jet exiting a nozzle, provided air resistance is neglected and the jet breaks into discrete particles. The time to reach the apex depends solely on the initial vertical component of velocity and gravitational acceleration. Given Data / Assumptions: Initial speed u = 9.81 m/s at 30° above horizontal. Acceleration due to gravity g ≈ 9.81 m/s^2 downward. No air resistance; motion considered point-mass kinematics. Highest point is where vertical velocity equals zero. Concept / Approach: Time to the top is given by t_top = u_y / g, where u_y = u * sin θ is the vertical component of the initial velocity. At the apex, vertical velocity becomes zero due to gravity; horizontal motion does not affect the time to the highest point. Step-by-Step Solution: Compute vertical component: u_y = u * sin θ = 9.81 * sin 30° = 9.81 * 0.5 = 4.905 m/s.Apply t_top = u_y / g = 4.905 / 9.81 = 0.5 s.Therefore, the particle reaches its apex in 0.50 s. Verification / Alternative check: Symmetry of projectile motion implies total flight time (to the same elevation) is 2 * t_top. If landing at nozzle height, total time would be 1.0 s, which is consistent with the computed half-time of 0.50 s. Why Other Options Are Wrong: 0.25 s: Would require u_y = 2.45 m/s, not consistent with u = 9.81 m/s and 30° launch. 1.00 s and 1.50 s: These are total or longer-than-total times, not the ascent time. 2.00 s: Far too long given the vertical component and g. Common Pitfalls: Using the total time-of-flight formula instead of the ascent time; forgetting to multiply by sin θ when finding the vertical component; confusing degrees and radians for the angle. Final Answer: 0.50 s

Question 10

Bernoulli head components  According to Bernoulli’s principle for steady incompressible flow along a streamline, the total head of a fluid particle equals the sum of which components?

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Introduction / Context: Bernoulli’s equation is foundational in fluid mechanics for relating pressure, velocity, and elevation along a streamline in steady, inviscid, incompressible flow. It states that the total mechanical energy per unit weight (total head) remains constant, barring losses or addition of energy. Given Data / Assumptions: Steady flow along a streamline. Incompressible fluid with negligible viscosity (idealization). No shaft work, pumps, or turbines between the two points considered. Concept / Approach: The total head H is written as H = z + p/(ρ g) + V^2/(2 g), where z is potential (elevation) head, p/(ρ g) is pressure head, and V^2/(2 g) is velocity (kinetic) head. These components sum to a constant in an ideal flow without losses. Step-by-Step Solution: Potential head = elevation term z.Pressure head = p / (ρ g).Kinetic head = V^2 / (2 g).Total head = z + p/(ρ g) + V^2/(2 g). Verification / Alternative check: Units check: each term has units of length (metres of fluid), confirming all are “heads.” Including losses would add h_f on the right-hand side to balance real systems. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Pairs of two heads omit one essential component of Bernoulli. “Turbulence head” is not a standard Bernoulli term; turbulence contributes to losses, not an ideal head component. Common Pitfalls: Confusing pressure head with pressure; forgetting to divide by ρ g; mixing energy per unit mass with energy per unit weight; ignoring head losses in real pipelines. Final Answer: Potential head, kinetic head, and pressure head

Question 11

Reynolds criteria for laminar pipe flow  For internal flow inside a circular pipe, laminar flow is expected when the Reynolds number (based on diameter) satisfies which criterion?

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Introduction / Context: Flow regime identification is essential for selecting appropriate head-loss correlations and heat-transfer relations. The Reynolds number encapsulates the ratio of inertial to viscous forces and is the primary indicator for laminar versus turbulent flow in pipes. Given Data / Assumptions: Flow in a straight, smooth, circular pipe. Reynolds number Re = ρ V D / μ. Entrance effects negligible; fully developed region considered. Concept / Approach: The classical thresholds are: laminar when Re < about 2100; transitional (critical) region roughly 2100 to 3000; and turbulent when Re > about 3000. Exact transition depends on disturbances and surface roughness, but these values are standard for engineering estimates. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify regime from Re.If Re < 2100 → laminar; 2100–3000 → transitional; >3000 → turbulent.Thus, the laminar criterion is Re < 2100. Verification / Alternative check: Experimental data (e.g., Osborne Reynolds dye-tracer experiments) corroborate these thresholds for round pipes, showing stable parabolic profiles below Re ≈ 2100. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Re > 3000 corresponds to turbulent flow. 2100 ≤ Re ≤ 3000 is the transition band, not strictly laminar. “None of these” and “Re < 1000 only for oils” are incorrect generalizations. Common Pitfalls: Assuming the thresholds are exact for all geometries; confusing hydraulic diameter for noncircular ducts; ignoring surface roughness and perturbations in the transitional regime. Final Answer: Re < 2100

Question 12

Name of a projecting (re-entrant) mouthpiece  The mouthpiece shown projects into the tank (i.e., the opening is internally projecting or re-entrant). By which of the following names is this commonly known in fluid mechanics?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Mouthpieces are short tubes fitted to orifices to control jet formation and discharge coefficients. When the mouthpiece projects into the tank rather than outside it, the flow separates at the sharp internal edge, creating a characteristic vena contracta. This configuration has multiple synonymous names in the literature. Given Data / Assumptions: Mouthpiece is shown projecting inward (re-entrant) into the reservoir wall. Short length relative to diameter; sharp-edged entrance. Incompressible flow, moderate heads. Concept / Approach: An inward projecting mouthpiece is commonly called an internal mouthpiece, a re-entrant mouthpiece, or Borda’s mouthpiece (after Jean-Charles de Borda). The discharge characteristics, including coefficient of discharge and contraction, are distinct from external (projecting outward) mouthpieces because of the way the jet contracts inside the mouthpiece. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify orientation: projection into the tank → internal/re-entrant configuration.Recognize terminologies used interchangeably: internal mouthpiece = re-entrant mouthpiece = Borda’s mouthpiece.Therefore, the correct response encompassing all valid names is “All of the above.” Verification / Alternative check: Standard fluid mechanics texts list these synonyms; experimental discharge coefficients for Borda’s mouthpiece match those for re-entrant/internal forms. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Each of options a–c individually names the same device; restricting to one would be incomplete given the question’s phrasing. “External mouthpiece” is the opposite orientation (projects outward) and therefore incorrect. Common Pitfalls: Confusing internal and external configurations; assuming different names imply different hardware when they are synonymous in this context. Final Answer: All of the above

Question 13

Continuity equation: what it expresses  In a steady flow field along a streamline, the continuity equation fundamentally expresses which conservation statement?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: The continuity equation is one of the fundamental equations governing fluid flow. It enforces conservation of mass and is applicable to both compressible and incompressible flows, in integral and differential forms. Along a streamline in steady incompressible flow, the mass flow rate remains constant. Given Data / Assumptions: Steady flow condition (no explicit time dependence in control volume). Single inlet–outlet streamline description. Incompressible fluid when using A V constancy; compressible form uses ρ A V. Concept / Approach: For a streamtube, continuity gives ρ A V = constant. In incompressible flow, density ρ is constant, so A V = constant. This expresses that mass cannot accumulate in a differential element in steady flow; whatever enters must exit. Step-by-Step Solution: Define streamtube cross-section area A and average velocity V.Mass flow rate m_dot = ρ A V.Steady flow → dm_dot/ds = 0 along the streamline → ρ A V = constant (or A V = constant if incompressible). Verification / Alternative check: For two sections 1 and 2: ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2. If ρ1 = ρ2, then A1 V1 = A2 V2. Measurements in venturi meters and nozzles use this directly. Why Other Options Are Wrong: Work–energy relation is tied to Bernoulli/energy equation, not continuity. Momentum equation handles forces and momentum change, not mass conservation. Newton’s second law and angular momentum are separate governing principles (momentum and moment-of-momentum equations). Common Pitfalls: Applying A V = constant to compressible flows without density correction; confusing energy and mass conservation; ignoring boundary-layer displacement thickness effects on effective area. Final Answer: Conservation of mass (mass rate of flow is constant along a streamline)

Question 14

Velocity of approach for a sharp-crested weir  A sharp-crested weir has effective crest length S. The upstream head above crest is H, and the measured discharge is Q m^3/s. What is the velocity of approach V_a (also written V_d) used for velocity-of…

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Introduction / Context: In weir flow measurement, the approach velocity upstream adds kinetic head to the upstream energy level and slightly increases discharge beyond the ideal. Engineers therefore compute the velocity of approach and apply a correction to the head term when using standard weir formulas. Given Data / Assumptions: Sharp-crested weir with effective crest length S (after end contractions). Upstream depth above crest = H (measured at an appropriate distance upstream to reduce drawdown error). Measured discharge Q through the weir. Approach channel of uniform width so that area upstream is S * H (for the velocity-of-approach estimate). Concept / Approach: Velocity of approach is the average upstream velocity associated with the approach cross-section. By continuity, V_a = Q / A_approach. For a sharp-crested weir, a practical estimate takes A_approach ≈ S * H, where S is effective crest length and H is head over the crest measured upstream. Step-by-Step Solution: Compute approach area: A_approach ≈ S * H.Apply continuity: V_a = Q / A_approach = Q / (S H).Use this V_a to form the velocity-head term V_a^2/(2 g) for head correction in discharge equations. Verification / Alternative check: Units: Q (m^3/s) divided by S H (m * m) yields m/s, confirming a velocity. For wide channels, using the full upstream area provides a similar estimate. Why Other Options Are Wrong: √(2 g H) and 2 g H belong to free-fall velocity or head relationships, not approach velocity from Q and area. Q / (S H^2) and Q / S have wrong dimensional forms. Common Pitfalls: Using crest length without adjusting for end contractions; measuring H too close to the crest; confusing jet velocity over the crest with the upstream approach velocity. Final Answer: V_a = Q / (S H)

Question 15

Steady flow in fluid mechanics In continuum fluid mechanics (ignoring compressibility effects unless stated), a flow is called steady when which condition holds true at a fixed point in space?

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Introduction / Context: Steady flow is a foundational concept in fluid mechanics used when applying Bernoulli’s equation, continuity, and momentum analyses. Correctly distinguishing “steady” from “uniform” helps avoid common modeling errors in pipelines, channels, and turbomachinery. Given Data / Assumptions: The fluid is treated as a continuum. Any property may be considered: velocity, pressure, density, temperature, etc. We assess behavior at a fixed spatial point (Eulerian viewpoint). Concept / Approach: In the Eulerian description, steadiness means the partial derivative with respect to time of any property at a fixed location is zero. That is, for velocity components u, v, w at a point, ∂u/∂t = ∂v/∂t = ∂w/∂t = 0, and similarly for pressure and other scalars. This does not require spatial uniformity—only temporal invariance at each point. Step-by-Step Solution: Definition: steady flow ⇒ all flow properties at a fixed point are time-invariant.Uniform flow (different concept) ⇒ properties are space-invariant along the direction considered.A flow may be steady but non-uniform (e.g., a nozzle with constant mass flow rate).Thus, the correct characterization of steady flow is “does not change with time at a point.” Verification / Alternative check: Plot any property (say, pressure) vs. time at a sensor fixed in space. If the value is constant (ignoring noise), the flow is steady at that point regardless of spatial gradients. Why Other Options Are Wrong: (a) “Change steadily” still means unsteady. (c) Same at adjacent points defines spatial uniformity, not steadiness. (d) Restricting to streamlines is unnecessary; steadiness applies to all properties at the point. (e) Uniformity along the pipe may occur without steadiness, and vice versa. Common Pitfalls: Confusing steady with uniform; believing a converging nozzle cannot be steady because velocity varies spatially—it can be steady if the flow rate and local properties are time-invariant. Final Answer: conditions of flow do not change with time at a point

Question 16

Centrifugal pump casing – nature of flow leaving the impeller In a typical volute or diffuser casing of a centrifugal pump, the flow of water leaving the impeller is best idealized as which motion?

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Introduction / Context: Understanding the swirl characteristics downstream of a centrifugal impeller is crucial for estimating head rise, diffuser performance, and hydraulic losses. The classification into free or forced vortex guides how tangential velocity varies with radius. Given Data / Assumptions: Single-stage centrifugal pump with volute/diffuser casing. Impeller imparts swirl; pressure recovery occurs in casing. Viscous effects and secondary flows are ignored for the basic idealization. Concept / Approach: A free vortex has constant angular momentum per unit mass (Vθ * r = constant), implying Vθ ∝ 1/r. A forced vortex (solid-body rotation) has Vθ ∝ r. After leaving the impeller blade tips, the casing area increases, static pressure rises, and swirl weakens approximately as a free vortex rather than maintaining solid-body rotation. Step-by-Step Solution: At impeller exit: finite tangential velocity Vθ, finite radius r.Conservation of angular momentum (neglecting torque from casing) ⇒ Vθ * r ≈ constant.As radius grows in the volute, Vθ decreases inversely with r, matching free vortex behavior. Verification / Alternative check: Experimental velocity profiles typically show swirl decay consistent with Vθ ∝ 1/r downstream of the impeller in well-designed casings. Why Other Options Are Wrong: (a) Rectilinear flow ignores swirl. (b) Pure radial flow is not accurate at exit; there is significant tangential component. (d) Forced vortex requires external torque to maintain solid-body rotation, which a casing does not provide. (e) Same issue as (d). Common Pitfalls: Assuming zero whirl at exit for maximum efficiency—this applies at an ideal design point at the impeller outlet relative velocity, not the absolute casing flow pattern which still exhibits vortex-like decay. Final Answer: free vortex motion

Question 17

Critical depth and specific energy in open-channel flow At the critical depth of flow in a prismatic open channel, the specific energy (per unit weight) is at which extremum value?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Specific energy diagrams are central to open-channel hydraulics for analyzing transitions, controls, and critical flow conditions. Recognizing the extremum at critical depth enables design of flumes and weirs for flow measurement and control. Given Data / Assumptions: Prismatic channel, steady flow, negligible energy losses over the control section. Specific energy E = y + V^2/(2g) for unit discharge q. Critical depth yc occurs when the Froude number Fr = 1. Concept / Approach: For a given discharge, the specific energy has a minimum at the critical depth. Mathematically, dE/dy = 0 yields the critical condition q^2 = g * A^3 / T for general sections, and for a rectangular section yc = (q^2/g)^(1/3). At this point, E is minimized, not maximized. Step-by-Step Solution: Express V = q / A; for a rectangular channel A = b y, T = b.E(y) = y + (q^2)/(2g b^2 y^2).Set dE/dy = 0 → 1 − (q^2)/(g b^2 y^3) = 0 → y = yc = (q^2/g)^(1/3).At yc, E is at a minimum for fixed q → defines critical flow (Fr = 1). Verification / Alternative check: On the specific-energy diagram, subcritical and supercritical branches meet at the lowest point where Fr = 1; any deviation in y increases E for the same discharge. Why Other Options Are Wrong: (b) Maximum occurs as y → ∞ for fixed q (E grows with y). (c) No averaging principle applies. (d) A definite extremum exists. (e) Bed slope does not set the extremum of E at a control section for a given q. Common Pitfalls: Confusing energy grade line (head losses) with specific energy; mixing critical depth with normal depth (which depends on slope and roughness). Final Answer: minimum

Question 18

Discharge over a Cipolletti weir A sharp-crested Cipolletti weir has crest length L = 2.185 m. If the measured head over the crest is H = 1.0 m, estimate the discharge (assume a typical sharp-crest coefficient C_d ≈ 0.62).

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: The Cipolletti (trapezoidal) weir uses 1H:4V side slopes to cancel end-contraction effects so its discharge is approximated by the rectangular suppressed-weir formula using the measured crest length. This problem applies the standard sharp-crested relation with a representative C_d to estimate flow. Given Data / Assumptions: Crest length L = 2.185 m. Head over crest H = 1.0 m (measured upstream at standard location). Sharp-crested weir; use C_d ≈ 0.62. g = 9.81 m/s^2; neglect velocity of approach and submergence. Concept / Approach: For a Cipolletti weir, the discharge is approximated by the rectangular suppressed-weir equation: Q = (2/3) * C_d * L * sqrt(2g) * H^(3/2). With H = 1, the power reduces to 1, simplifying evaluation. Step-by-Step Solution: Compute sqrt(2g) = sqrt(19.62) ≈ 4.429.Coefficient block: (2/3) * C_d = (2/3) * 0.62 ≈ 0.4133.Multiply by L: 0.4133 * 2.185 ≈ 0.902.Multiply by sqrt(2g): 0.902 * 4.429 ≈ 3.996 m^3/s ≈ 4.0 m^3/s. Verification / Alternative check: Reasonable magnitudes: a 2.2 m wide sharp-crest with 1 m head producing roughly 4 m^3/s aligns with standard tables. Minor deviations in C_d (0.60–0.62) change Q by only a few percent. Why Other Options Are Wrong: (a–c) Underestimate the computed discharge for H = 1 m. (e) Slight overestimate beyond typical C_d range with H = 1 m and L = 2.185 m. Common Pitfalls: Forgetting that Cipolletti geometry eliminates end-contraction correction; using effective length L_e incorrectly; neglecting submergence criteria or velocity-of-approach corrections when they are significant. Final Answer: 4.0 m^3/s

Question 19

Hydraulic gradient definition in pipe/porous flow Hydraulic gradient (i) is defined as the drop in piezometric head between two points divided by which quantity?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: The hydraulic gradient governs head loss representation in pipes and seepage in soils. It appears in Darcy’s law and the energy equation, linking head drop to flow rate and resistance. Given Data / Assumptions: Piezometric head h_p = p/γ + z (for incompressible flow). We consider two points along the same streamline or flow path. Local losses and elevation changes are captured in head differences. Concept / Approach: The hydraulic gradient i is the head loss per unit length along the flow path: i = Δh / L, where Δh is the drop in piezometric head (or total head if velocity heads are accounted consistently) and L is the distance measured along the flow direction between the two points. Step-by-Step Solution: Measure heads at sections 1 and 2: h1, h2.Head loss Δh = h1 − h2 (positive if head decreases downstream).Distance along flow L between the sections measured following the conduit/soil path.Hydraulic gradient: i = Δh / L. Verification / Alternative check: In Darcy’s law for porous media: v = k * i, reinforcing that i is a geometric ratio of head drop to flow length. In pipe flow, the slope of hydraulic grade line equals the hydraulic gradient. Why Other Options Are Wrong: (a) Time does not define i. (c) Vertical depth at a point is unrelated to two-point head difference ratio. (d) Pipe diameter is not part of head gradient definition. (e) Wetted perimeter affects resistance, not the definition of i. Common Pitfalls: Mixing total head and piezometric head inconsistently; measuring straight-line distance instead of the flow-path length in curved conduits or media. Final Answer: the distance measured along the flow path between the points

Question 20

Cavitation in hydraulic machines Cavitation inception is primarily caused when the local static pressure in the liquid falls below which threshold?

Accepted Answer

Introduction / Context: Cavitation produces noise, vibration, erosion, and performance loss in pumps, turbines, and propellers. Recognizing the pressure–velocity interplay that triggers vapour bubble formation is essential for design against cavitation. Given Data / Assumptions: Incompressible liquid (e.g., water) with a known vapour pressure p_v at operating temperature. Local static pressure p_s varies along streamlines due to geometry and speed. Neglect dissolved gases for the basic argument (though they can exacerbate effects). Concept / Approach: By Bernoulli’s principle, higher local velocities often correspond to reduced static pressures. Cavitation starts when p_s dips to p_v (or below), allowing vapour cavity formation. Subsequent collapse in high-pressure regions releases damaging pressure pulses. Step-by-Step Solution: Identify critical locations (e.g., pump suction, turbine runner inlet, valve throats).Compute local p_s; compare with p_v at fluid temperature.If p_s ≤ p_v → cavitation inception risk; adjust Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH), geometry, or operating conditions. Verification / Alternative check: Use NPSH_available ≥ NPSH_required for pumps to avoid suction cavitation. Empirical cavitation indices (σ) in turbines provide similar checks against p_v limits. Why Other Options Are Wrong: (b) High pressure suppresses cavitation. (c) Low velocity tends to increase static pressure, not reduce it. (d) High velocity usually reduces p_s, not increases it; the cause is pressure dropping low, not high. Common Pitfalls: Ignoring temperature dependence of p_v; evaluating only average pressure instead of local minima; forgetting inlet losses that reduce suction pressure. Final Answer: Low pressure (approaching or below vapour pressure)

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