Data integrity control in practice: Which of the following are typical elements of data integrity control and governance in database environments?

Introduction / Context:
Data integrity encompasses accuracy, consistency, and protection of data throughout its lifecycle. Practical control frameworks combine validation rules, access controls, and audit metadata to maintain trustworthy information and support compliance.

Given Data / Assumptions:

• Numeric ranges and validation checks help prevent invalid values.
• Access control (passwords/roles) restricts who can change data, indirectly protecting integrity.
• Catalog/audit metadata (timestamps of access, backup, and modification) support traceability and recovery.

Concept / Approach:
Integrity controls are both preventive and detective. Range checks and constraints prevent bad data from entering. Authentication/authorization ensures only permitted users can alter data. Audit trails and dictionary metadata help detect anomalies, roll back errors, and demonstrate control effectiveness during audits.

Step-by-Step Solution:
Associate option (a) with constraints and validation logic (CHECK constraints, input validation).Associate option (b) with authentication/authorization, preventing unauthorized writes that would compromise integrity.Associate option (c) with metadata management and auditing, enabling recovery and accountability.Choose the inclusive answer acknowledging all three as part of an integrity control framework.

Verification / Alternative check:
Governance standards (for example, internal IT controls) treat validation, access management, and audit as pillars of data integrity. DBMS features align with these domains.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:
Picking a single element is incomplete; durable integrity requires layered controls that prevent, limit, and trace changes.

Common Pitfalls:
Overreliance on application checks without database-level constraints; weak authentication; missing backups or audit metadata, making recovery and forensic analysis difficult.

Final Answer:
All of the above