MIS development strategy: designers must decide whether to follow a “top-down” or a “bottom-up” approach. Fill in the missing word to complete the common pair.

Introduction / Context:
Systems are commonly designed using either a “top-down” approach (start from strategy, decompose to processes and components) or a “bottom-up” approach (start from existing data/process assets and integrate upward). The question asks you to complete the standard phrase that contrasts these two approaches.

Given Data / Assumptions:

• The fixed pair is “top-down” versus “bottom-up.”
• We assume conventional MIS and software engineering terminology.

Concept / Approach:
“Top-down” emphasizes alignment with corporate objectives and architecture first, while “bottom-up” emphasizes incremental integration of operational components. Both have merits and are often combined. The missing word paired with “top” is “down.”

Step-by-Step Solution:

Verification / Alternative check:
Software engineering and MIS textbooks consistently use the “top-down/bottom-up” dichotomy.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

• (b) “level” does not complete the idiom.
• (c) “bottom” duplicates the second approach, not the completion for “top.”
• (d) and (e) are inconsistent with the well-known phrase.

Common Pitfalls:
Confusing the two directions or thinking they are mutually exclusive; in practice, hybrid approaches are common.

Final Answer:
down