Theory testing in research: In empirical disciplines, theories are primarily evaluated using which of the following?

Introduction / Context:
Theories explain and predict phenomena. In empirical research—such as information systems, operations, and management—testing a theory requires observable evidence. The question seeks the primary basis for evaluating whether a theory holds up under scrutiny.

Given Data / Assumptions:

• Theories generate testable hypotheses.
• Evidence must be observable and measurable.
• Evaluation involves comparing predictions with observations.

Concept / Approach:
Data are recorded observations—quantitative or qualitative—used to test hypotheses derived from theory. While “information” is processed data and “principles/propositions” are components of theoretical frameworks, it is data that provide the empirical grounding to confirm, refine, or falsify a theory.

Step-by-Step Solution:

Verification / Alternative check:
Research methodology emphasizes evidence-based validation; peer-reviewed studies hinge on data quality and analysis, not on restating propositions alone.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

• Information: a broader term; evaluation uses raw or processed data but the core artifact is data.
• Principles/propositions: parts of a theory, not the means of evaluation.
• None of the above: incorrect because data are correct.

Common Pitfalls:
Equating elegant theory with truth; without data, theories remain untested assertions.

Final Answer:
data