Temperature programming — Why is a chromatographic column (especially in GC) heated or temperature-programmed during analysis?

Introduction / Context:
Column temperature critically affects retention, selectivity, and efficiency. In gas chromatography, isothermal or programmed heating controls volatility-driven elution, prevents condensation, and can significantly sharpen peaks and shorten run times for late-eluting compounds.

Given Data / Assumptions:

• Analyte vapor pressures and partitioning are temperature dependent.
• Cold spots lead to adsorption/condensation and peak tailing.
• Temperature programming reduces analysis time for complex mixtures.

Concept / Approach:
Consider all roles temperature plays: ensuring analytes remain mobile (no condensation), adjusting elution windows for complex mixtures, and improving kinetics to reduce mass-transfer limitations (narrower peaks).

Step-by-Step Solution:

Verification / Alternative check:
Comparing isothermal vs. programmed runs shows improved peak shape and reduced total run time under proper programming.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

Common Pitfalls:
Using too steep ramps that degrade separation of mid-volatile analytes; always balance resolution and time.

Final Answer:
All of these.