Cloning in plant and microbial contexts — deriving multiple genetically identical individuals from a single donor is typically achieved by:

Introduction / Context:
Cloning refers to producing genetically identical copies (clones) from a single organism or cell. In plants and some microbes, routine cloning is practically achieved via vegetative propagation rather than sexual reproduction, which reshuffles alleles.

Given Data / Assumptions:

• Goal: uniform, genetically identical progeny.
• Vegetative parts (stems, tubers, cuttings) or micropropagation (tissue culture) bypass meiosis and fertilization.
• Sexual reproduction introduces recombination and segregation.

Concept / Approach:

Vegetative propagation maintains the donor genotype because it multiplies somatic tissues. Techniques include cuttings, grafting, air layering, runners, and micropropagation using meristems or callus cultures, ensuring genetic uniformity if somaclonal variation is controlled.

Step-by-Step Solution:

Verification / Alternative check:

Horticulture and plant biotech texts describe micropropagation as clonal multiplication; field practices use cuttings and grafts for uniform cultivars.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

(b) and (c) are nonstandard terms; (d) is incorrect as a valid method exists; (e) “spontaneous segregation” is the opposite of clonality.

Common Pitfalls:

Assuming seeds from selfed plants are clones; selfing still permits segregation unless fully homozygous lines are used.

Final Answer:

Vegetative propagation