Flashlight battery polarity: A flashlight uses three 1.5 V cells in series. If one cell is inserted backward (reverse polarity), what happens to the flashlight output?

Introduction / Context:
Series battery stacks add voltages algebraically, taking polarity into account. Many small flashlights are designed for three 1.5 V cells (nominal 4.5 V) to drive a bulb or LED plus driver. Reversing one cell changes the net series sum and can prevent operation entirely.

Given Data / Assumptions:

• Three cells rated 1.5 V each, intended to be in series and oriented correctly.
• One cell is reversed, contributing negative polarity relative to the others.
• Flashlight electronics (bulb/LED driver) expect approximately 4.5 V.
• Idealized cells assumed for the polarity-sum explanation.

Concept / Approach:
Series voltages add with sign. With correct orientation, V_total = 1.5 + 1.5 + 1.5 = 4.5 V. With one reversed, V_total = 1.5 + 1.5 − 1.5 = 1.5 V. Most lamps or driver circuits designed for ~4.5 V will not operate properly at ~1.5 V; an incandescent filament may not glow perceptibly, and many LED drivers have undervoltage lockout or cannot maintain current regulation.

Step-by-Step Solution:
Compute nominal: three cells correct → 4.5 V.Reverse one cell: algebraic sum → 1.5 V total.Compare to required operating voltage: 1.5 V is far below design point.Conclusion: no visible output; flashlight is effectively off.

Verification / Alternative check:
Practical test: a 4.5 V incandescent bulb at 1.5 V draws much less current and produces negligible light; an LED driver typically shuts down under low input voltage. Both cases appear “off” to a user.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:
Brighter than normal / the same: contradict the reduced supply voltage.Dimmer than normal: while technically some small glow could occur with simple bulbs, in typical products the result is functionally off; the robust answer is off.

Common Pitfalls:
Ignoring polarity in series stacks. One reversed cell subtracts from the total, and in some electronics can also stress protection circuitry due to reverse biasing.

Final Answer:
off