BJT switching in saturation: when a transistor used as a switch is driven into hard saturation, the collector-to-emitter voltage VCE(sat) is approximately equal to which value under typical silicon operation?

Introduction / Context:
Transistors used as on/off switches operate in two extremes: cutoff (off) and saturation (on). In saturation, both the base-emitter and base-collector junctions are forward biased, strongly reducing the collector-to-emitter voltage. Recognizing the expected magnitude of VCE(sat) is essential for estimating power dissipation, voltage margins, and logic-level compatibility in driver circuits.

Given Data / Assumptions:

• Silicon BJT operated in hard saturation with adequate base overdrive.
• Moderate currents (data-sheet typicals), not extreme high-current cases.
• Room temperature conditions as a first approximation.

Concept / Approach:
In saturation, the transistor's collector-base junction is forward-biased and the device cannot support a large collector-emitter voltage. Typical data sheets specify VCE(sat) in the range of about 0.1–0.3 V (depending on device, current, and temperature). A common rule-of-thumb value used in introductory courses is around 0.2–0.3 V, which is much lower than the 0.7 V associated with a forward-biased base-emitter junction and dramatically lower than the supply voltage VC or VCC in a switching stage.

Step-by-Step Solution:

Verification / Alternative check:
Check device datasheets (e.g., 2N3904, BC547). At IC ≈ 10 mA and IB sufficient for saturation, VCE(sat) is commonly listed around 0.1–0.2 V. At higher currents, it can increase but stays far below 0.7 V. Therefore, among the given choices, 0.3 V best represents a typical approximate value.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:
Approximately equal to VC or VB: these are node potentials, not fixed drops; in saturation the device drop is small, not equal to supply or base voltage.
Approximately 0.7 V: that is the base-emitter forward drop magnitude, not the collector-emitter saturated drop.
Approximately 1.0 V: too high for a silicon BJT in saturation under normal conditions.

Common Pitfalls:
Confusing VBE(on) (~0.7 V) with VCE(sat); assuming VCE(sat) is zero; ignoring that VCE(sat) increases with current and temperature; under-driving the base so the device is not actually saturated.

Final Answer:
Approximately 0.3 V