Sultan Mahmud, who led several raids into the Indian subcontinent in the eleventh century, was a ruler of which place.

Introduction / Context:
Sultan Mahmud is a well known figure in early medieval Indian history for his repeated invasions of the Indian subcontinent, including the famous raid on the Somnath temple. To understand these campaigns, it is important to know the political base from which he operated. This question asks for the place he ruled, which helps relate his raids to the wider geography of Central and West Asia and the frontier regions of India.

Given Data / Assumptions:

• The ruler mentioned is Sultan Mahmud. • He is known for raids into India during the eleventh century. • The question asks which place or kingdom he ruled. • Options include Persia, Ghazni, Lahore, Arab, and Samarkand.

Concept / Approach:
Sultan Mahmud is most accurately known as Mahmud of Ghazni. Ghazni was a city and kingdom located in present day Afghanistan. From this base, Mahmud launched multiple expeditions into northwestern India. Although his influence extended to parts of Punjab, his original power centre remained Ghazni. Therefore, the correct approach is to remember the fixed phrase Mahmud of Ghazni and choose Ghazni as the answer.

Step-by-Step Solution:
Step 1: Recall the common historical expression Mahmud of Ghazni, which identifies the ruler clearly. Step 2: Understand that Ghazni was both a city and the capital of his kingdom in the region of present day Afghanistan. Step 3: Note that from Ghazni he launched many raids into India, targeting rich temples and cities. Step 4: Examine the options. Persia is a broader region that included different dynasties, Lahore was one of the cities he controlled later but not his original power base, Arab is a region, and Samarkand is associated with later rulers such as Timur. Step 5: Conclude that Ghazni is therefore the accurate and specific answer.

Verification / Alternative check:
Histories of medieval India and Central Asia consistently give Mahmud the title Mahmud of Ghazni. They describe the Ghaznavid dynasty, which ruled from Ghazni as its capital. Maps of his empire place Ghazni in the region that is now southeastern Afghanistan. The chronicles of his campaigns, including his famous raid on Somnath in Gujarat, all start from Ghazni as the launching point. This agreement among sources confirms that Ghazni is the correct option.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:
Persia: This is a general term for the region of modern Iran and was ruled by different dynasties, not specifically by Mahmud of Ghazni. Lahore: Mahmud captured Lahore and it became an important city in his Indian territories, but it was not his original capital or the kingdom most associated with his name. Arab: This is a regional term referring to the Arabian Peninsula and surrounding areas, not the specific kingdom of Mahmud. Samarkand: This city in Central Asia is known for rulers like Timur and later Uzbek leaders, not for Mahmud of Ghazni.

Common Pitfalls:
Because Mahmud extended his rule into parts of Punjab, some students mistakenly link him with Lahore instead of Ghazni. Others loosely mark Persia or Arab when they remember that he came from the west of India. To avoid this, it is helpful to memorise the full label Mahmud of Ghazni and picture Ghazni on the map of Afghanistan as his capital. This keeps the association clear and prevents confusion with other cities or regions.

Final Answer:
Sultan Mahmud, who led several raids into India, was the ruler of Ghazni.