In the history of measurement systems, the M.K.S. system of units (metre–kilogram–second) was first introduced by which scientist or engineer?

Introduction / Context:
Measurement systems evolved over time from various local and traditional units to more standardised systems like the M.K.S. (metre–kilogram–second) and ultimately the S.I. system. Understanding who contributed to these developments is part of general science and physics history. This question asks who first introduced or proposed the M.K.S. system, which later formed the basis for the modern S.I. units used worldwide in science and engineering.

Given Data / Assumptions:
- The specific system mentioned is the M.K.S. system of units: metre, kilogram, and second. - Options include Archimedes, Einstein, Newton, and Giorgi. - We assume standard historical accounts of the development of unit systems. - The task is to connect the M.K.S. system with its proposer.

Concept / Approach:
Giovanni Giorgi, an Italian engineer and physicist, proposed a rationalised system of units that combined the M.K.S. system with an electrical unit, leading to the foundation of the international system (S.I.). Archimedes, Newton, and Einstein made enormous contributions to science but were not responsible for this particular system of units. The correct approach is to recall that the M.K.S. system and its subsequent generalisation into the S.I. system are historically linked to Giorgi's proposal.

Step-by-Step Solution:
Step 1: Recognise that the M.K.S. system uses metre for length, kilogram for mass, and second for time, and became a precursor to the S.I. system. Step 2: Recall that Giovanni Giorgi proposed combining mechanical units with an electrical unit to form a coherent system, building on M.K.S. units. Step 3: Evaluate Archimedes. He worked in ancient Greece on hydrostatics and geometry, long before modern scientific unit systems were developed. Step 4: Evaluate Newton. He established the laws of motion and gravity and used existing units but did not create the M.K.S. system as a formal standard. Step 5: Evaluate Einstein. He revolutionised physics with relativity and quantum ideas but did not introduce the M.K.S. system. Step 6: Giorgi is historically credited with proposing the rationalised M.K.S. system, so option d is correct.

Verification / Alternative check:
Histories of unit systems and the S.I. system note that in the early 20th century, Giovanni Giorgi suggested that a coherent system based on the metre, kilogram, second, and one electrical unit (eventually the ampere) could unify mechanical and electrical measurements. This Giorgi system later evolved into the modern S.I. system. No such attribution is made to Archimedes, Newton, or Einstein, confirming that Giorgi's name is the correct one to associate with the introduction of the M.K.S. framework.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:
Archimedes lived in a period when measurement units were local and not standardised globally; he did not develop the M.K.S. system. Newton's work predated modern unit standardisation and, while highly influential in mechanics, did not include a formal proposal of the M.K.S. system. Einstein focused on theoretical physics and used existing units in his work but did not create this unit system. Therefore, associating the M.K.S. system with any of these three scientists would be historically inaccurate.

Common Pitfalls:
Students sometimes guess Newton or Einstein whenever a physics-related question arises, ignoring the specific context of measurement systems and unit standardisation. Another pitfall is being unfamiliar with the name Giorgi and assuming that a more famous scientist must be the right answer. To avoid these mistakes, it is helpful to remember a few key names like Kelvin for temperature scales and Giorgi for the rationalised M.K.S. system that paved the way for S.I. units.

Final Answer:
The M.K.S. system of units was first introduced and rationalised by Giovanni Giorgi.