Archaeological evidence suggests that the Indus Valley (Harappan) people carried on long-distance trade with which of the following ancient civilisations?

Introduction / Context:
The Indus Valley or Harappan civilisation was one of the earliest urban civilisations in the world, known for its planned cities, drainage systems and craft production. A key question in ancient history is how far its trade networks extended. Archaeological finds reveal contacts with other regions, and knowing which civilisation the Harappans traded with helps you understand their economic and cultural connections beyond the Indian subcontinent.

Given Data / Assumptions:

• The civilisation in focus is the Indus Valley (Harappan) civilisation.
• The question asks which other ancient civilisation it traded with over long distances.
• The options list Chinese, Mesopotamian, Parthian and Roman civilisations or empires.
• We assume the learner is aware that the Harappan period is roughly 2600–1900 BCE, much earlier than some of the other options.

Concept / Approach:
Archaeological evidence, including seals, beads and references in cuneiform texts, shows that the Harappans traded with Mesopotamia (in present-day Iraq and surrounding regions). Mesopotamian records mention a land called Meluhha, which many scholars identify with the Indus region. Harappan-style seals and goods have been found in Mesopotamian sites, indicating exchange of luxury items, textiles, and possibly timber and precious stones. The Roman Empire and the Parthian Empire arose much later, and while India did trade with these powers in later periods, they do not coincide chronologically with the early Harappan peak. The Chinese civilisation existed, but direct firm evidence of Harappan–Chinese trade is lacking compared to that with Mesopotamia.

Step-by-Step Solution:
Step 1: Place the Harappan civilisation in time, roughly 2600–1900 BCE. Step 2: Recall that Mesopotamian cuneiform tablets mention trade with a coastal land called Meluhha, believed to be the Indus region. Step 3: Note that Harappan seals and artefacts have been discovered at sites in Mesopotamia, supporting the idea of direct or indirect trade. Step 4: Recognise that the Roman Empire and Parthian Empire flourished much later, from around the first millennium BCE onwards, after the Harappan urban phase had declined. Step 5: Understand that evidence for systematic Harappan trade with ancient China is sparse and not as clearly documented as with Mesopotamia. Step 6: Conclude that the best supported answer is the Mesopotamian civilisation.

Verification / Alternative check:
Standard textbooks and archaeological summaries emphasise the Indus–Mesopotamia maritime trade, citing Mesopotamian references to Meluhha and discoveries of Indus-style seals in Mesopotamian cities like Ur and Lagash. They also mention exported items such as beads, cotton textiles and possibly timber and metals. By contrast, the Romans are discussed in connection with Indo-Roman trade during the early centuries CE, long after Harappan times. This chronological and evidence-based comparison confirms that Mesopotamia is the correct choice for Harappan long-distance trade partners.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

• The Chinese civilisation: Although ancient, clear archaeological and textual evidence of direct Harappan–Chinese trade is minimal compared to the Harappan–Mesopotamian link.
• The Parthian Empire: A later Iranian empire that does not overlap in time with the mature Harappan period.
• The Roman Empire: India traded with Rome, but that occurred much later in the early centuries CE, not during the Harappan period.

Common Pitfalls:
Students sometimes choose the Roman Empire or Parthians because Indo-Roman trade is a popular topic in later ancient Indian history. Another error is to select China by assuming that all early civilisations must necessarily have traded with each other. To answer correctly, you must align the time periods and rely on concrete archaeological evidence. In Harappan context, the most firmly documented long-distance trade partner is the Mesopotamian civilisation.

Final Answer:
The Indus Valley (Harappan) people traded over long distances with the Mesopotamian civilisation.