Boiler heat losses: identifying principal components In a practical boiler, significant fractions of input heat are lost. Which of the following are recognized loss categories in a standard boiler heat-balance sheet?

Introduction / Context:
Even a well-designed boiler cannot convert 100% of fuel energy into useful steam energy. Heat-balance sheets categorize losses to pinpoint improvements and compare performance across fuels and operating conditions.

Given Data / Assumptions:

• Combustion products leave at a temperature above ambient, carrying sensible heat.
• Fuels may contain moisture, and hydrogen in fuel forms water vapor upon combustion.
• Additional losses (radiation, incomplete combustion) exist but are not listed in the options.

Concept / Approach:
Dry flue-gas loss is the sensible heat carried by nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and excess oxygen in the stack. Moisture-in-fuel loss accounts for heating and evaporating inherent water. Hydrogen-in-fuel loss includes the latent and sensible heat of water formed during combustion. Summing these with other minor losses yields 1 − η_boiler.

Step-by-Step Solution:
Identify each loss mechanism and its physical basis.Recognize that all listed categories appear in standard heat-balance tabulations.Therefore, the comprehensive answer is “all of the above.”This directly supports calculating efficiency via loss method: η = 1 − Σ(loss fractions).

Verification / Alternative check:
Boiler trial standards enumerate these losses explicitly, often the three largest categories besides radiation and unburnt losses, validating their inclusion.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:
Each single selection is incomplete; “none” contradicts established thermal accounting for boilers.

Common Pitfalls:
Ignoring latent heat in water-vapor losses; underestimating excess-air impact on dry flue-gas losses.

Final Answer:
all of the above