Diagram Factor — Typical Range in Practice What is the typical average range of the diagram factor (ratio of actual to theoretical indicator diagram measures) for steam engines under normal operating conditions?

Introduction / Context:
The diagram factor corrects ideal indicator-diagram predictions to reflect real effects such as throttling, valve timing, leakage, and condensation. It is a crucial multiplier when moving from theoretical mean effective pressure to a realistic value for performance calculations.

Given Data / Assumptions:

• Conventional slide-valve or piston-valve engines with sensible settings.
• Well-maintained condition without excessive leakage.
• Steady load and representative indicator diagrams.

Concept / Approach:
The factor is defined equivalently as area_actual/area_theoretical, work_actual/work_theoretical, or MEP_actual/MEP_theoretical. In practice, values significantly below 0.6 signal serious losses, while values approaching 1.0 are rare due to unavoidable irreversibilities. A commonly quoted average range across many engines is 0.65 to 0.90, depending on design and tuning.

Step-by-Step Solution:
Relate work per cycle to diagram area and MEP to work/displacement.Recognise that real engines deviate from ideal admission and expansion.Adopt the widely observed practical band 0.65–0.90 for average conditions.

Verification / Alternative check:
Textbook and test results across varied engines frequently report values in the 0.7–0.85 region, consistent with the stated range.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:
0.2–0.5: unrealistically low for healthy engines.0.5–0.65: lower than typical averages; indicates notable losses.0.8–1.2: upper bound exceeds 1; factors above 1 are non-physical.

Common Pitfalls:
Assuming a universal constant; diagram factor is engine- and condition-specific.

Final Answer:
0.65 to 0.9